. 

^University  of  California. 

•0  M     ill!'.    UliKARY    OK 

1)  K.     F  R.\  N  Cl  S     L  1  K  HER, 
Proft-ssor  of  Ili.-tnr.v  imd  Lnw  in  Columbia  College,  Now  York. 

rm:  <;in 

MICHAEL     REESE, 

>'iin  Fninn\\\'<>. 


GREAT  EVENTS, 


DESCRIBED    BY 


DISTINGUISHED  HISTORIANS,  CHRONICLERS, 


OTHER    WRITERS. 


COLLECTED  AND  IN  PART  TRANSLATED  BY 


FRANCIS    LIEBER. 


NEW    YORK: 

HARPER    <k    BROTHERS,    PUBLISHERS, 

KKANKLIN     SQUARE. 

1862. 


*r 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1840,  by 

MARSH,  CAPEN,  LYON,  AND  WEBB, 
^  th»  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts 


TO  MY  WIPE: 

THE  BEST  MOTHER  1  KNOW 


PREFACE. 


THE  Compiler  of  this  Volume  has  long  been  con- 
vinced, that  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of  forming 
a  strong  character,  awakening  generous  impulses,  and 
invigorating  the  mind  for  future  action,  is,  to  encour- 
age an  early  familiarity  with  great  events,  and  with 
those  prominent  men,  whose  bold  deeds  or  persevering 
exertions  were  crowned  with  lasting  effects,  or  whose 
loftiness  of  purpose  renders  them  inspiring  examples. 
He  had,  accordingly,  made  out  a  list  of  passages,  in 
which,  distinguished  historians,  eyewitnesses,  or  other 
writers  of  merit,  have  described  events  of  historical 
moment  and  of  thrilling  interest.  The  striking  forms 
and  characteristic  images  of  such  narratives  address 
themselves  directly  to  the  minds  of  the  young,  and  the 
impression  of  a  distinct  picture  is  left  by  them,  as  the  con- 
ception of  a  master  artist  is  embodied  upon  his  canvass. 

This  compilation  was  originally  intended  to  serve 
him  in  instructing  his  own  son.  When  he  was  invited, 
therefore,  to  contribute  to  the  series  of  publications,  of 
which  this  Volume  is  intended  to  form  a  part,  he  thought 
that  some  of  the  extracts,  selected  for  his  own  house- 
hold use,  and  therefore  with  at  least  a  parental  solici- 
tude, might  possibly  prove  adapted  to  the  improvement 
of  the  rising  generation  at  large.  With  this  feeling,  he 
offers  the  following  passages ;  each  of  which  he  has 
prefaced  with  a  few  remarks,  calculated,  in  some  in- 
stances, as  will  at  once  be  perceived,  to  suggest  ideas 


6  PREFACE. 

rather  to  the  parent  or  teacher,  the  guides  of  the  young 
reader,  than  directly  to  the  latter. 

Although  the  Work  is  intended  chiefly  for  the  young, 
the  Compiler  feels  convinced,  that  several  of  the  extracts 
will  be  found  new  and  instructive,  by  readers  more  ad- 
vanced in  years.  To  the  young,  this  Book  is  offered 
as  a  part  of  that  great  moral  capital,  which  successive 
generations  store  up  in  history,  as  a  nation  collects  a 
public  capital,  by  adding  the  results  of  industry  to  the 
previous  stock,  in  the  employment  of  which  these  new 
values  were  obtained.  To  parents,  it  is  offered  as  some 
of  the  most  nutritious  food  which  they  can  furnish  to 
those  who  are  intrusted  to  their  care.  A  detailed  ac- 
quaintance with  momentous  actions  is  far  more  impor- 
tant to  the  young,  and  indeed  to  every  one,  than  is 
the  mere  knowledge  of  some  moral  truth.  For  a  fa- 
miliar acquaintance  with  lofty  characters,  or  with  those 
extraordinary  occurrences,  in  which  the  greatness  of 
man's  sufferings  or  enjoyment,  and  the  extent  of  his 
losses  or  victories,  banish  trifling  interests  and  vulgar 
motives,  gives  that,  without  which,  high  principles, 
however  well  known,  will  rarely  be  acted  upon  ;  I  mean, 
tone  of  character  and  nobleness  of  soul ;  a  sense,  as 
well  as  a  knowledge,  of  those  principles.  An  early 
and  familiar  knowledge  of  great  events  fills  the  soul 
with  noble  images.  It  exalts  the  mind,  and  imbues  it 
with  respect  for  that  which  is  great,  good,  elevated, 
and  glorious.  It  represses  forward  ignorance  and  en- 
courages worthy  ambition.  It  tends  to  foster  both  a 
true  self-respect  and  a  dutiful  sense  of  what  our  ances- 
tors have  done  for  us. 

COLUMBIA,  S.  C.,  1840. 

The  Glossary  and  Index  have  been  added  by  the  Publisher*,  in 
conformity  with  the  original  plan  for  all  works  forming  a  part  of 
SCHOOL  LIBRARY.' 


CONTENTS. 


PREFACE,       .          5 

The  Battle  at  Thermopylae,  [B.  C.  480,]  by  HERODO- 
TUS, .  9 

The  Death  of  Socrates,  [B.  C.  399,]  by  PLATO,          .    28 

The  Surrender  of  the  Roman  Army  at  the  Defile  near 
Caudiuni,  [B.  C.319,]  by  LIVY, 40 

Impeachment  of  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  surnamed 
Africanus,  and  of  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio,  sur- 
named Asiaticus,  [B.  C.  187,]  by  LIVY,  ...  60 

Delivery  of  the  Four  Swiss  Forest  Districts,  (Wald- 
stadte,)  [A.D.  1308,]  by  TSCHUDI,  ....  74 

The  Battle  at  Sempach,  [A.  D.  1386,]  by  JOHN  VON 
MULLER, 89 

The  Death  of  Huss,  [A.  D.  1415,]  by  THEOBALD,      .     99 
The  Conquest  of  Constantinople,   [A.  D.  1453,]  by 
GIBBON, Ill 

Martin  Luther's  Appearance  before  the  Diet  of  the 
German  Empire,  at  Worms,  [A.  D.  1521,]  byMAR- 

HEINECKE, 141 

The  Siege  and  Surrender  of  Rhodes,  [A.D.  1522,]  by 
the  ABBE  VERTOT, 158 

The  Sack  of  Rome,  [A.  D.  1527,]  by  JAMES  BONA- 
PARTE, an  Eyewitness, 233 

Henry  VIII.,  King  of  England,  and  Catharine  of 
Aragon,  his  Queen,  before  the  Legatine  Court, 


8  CONTENTS. 

consisting  of  Cardinals  Wolsey  and  Campeggio, 
[A.  D.  1527,]  by  GEORGE  CAVENDISH,      ....  270 

The  Sieges  of  Leyden,   [A.  D.  1574,]  and  Ostend, 
[A.D.  1601,]  by  BENTIVOGLIO,        287 

The  Destruction  of  the  Invincible  Armada,   [A.D. 
1588,]  by  JOHN  STOWE, .308 

The  Siege  of  Zaragoza,  [A.  D.  1808,]  by  SOUTHEY 
and  NAPIER,        327 

GLOSSARY,          341 

INDEX,      .  .381 


GREAT   EVENTS. 


THE  BATTLE  AT  THERMOPYLAE 

BY  HERODOTUS. 

HERODOTUS,  a  contemporary  of  Pericles  and  Phidias, 
who  flourished  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  years  before 
Christ,  was  born  at  Halicarnassus,  in  Asia  Minor.  His 
native  place  being  ruled  over  by  the  usurper  Lygdamis, 
he  left  it,  and  went  to  Samos,  where  he  probably  acquired 
the  melodious  Ionic  dialect,  in  which  his  history  is  com- 
posed ;  the  stern  Doric  dialect  being  that  of  the  place  of 
his  birth.  The  great  times  in  which  he  lived,  and  the  glo- 
rious deeds  which  had  been  performed  by  the  generation 
preceding  his  own,  together  with  the  perusal  of  previous 
historians,  awakened  in  him,  at  an  early  period,  the  desire 
to  describe  these  deeds,  and  to  travel  into  foreign  coun- 
tries, and  inquire  into  the  various  institutions  and  manners 
of  the  different  tribes.  When  the  eighty-first  Olympiad* 
wa.°  celebrated,  by  the  Olympic  games,  Herodotus  read 
portions  of  his  history  to  the  immense  assemblage  of  peo- 
ple, called  together  by  this  national  feast.  The  universal 
applause,  with  which  his  compositions  were  received,  in- 
cited him  to  employ  many  successive  years  to  extend  and 
perfect  his  work.  Ancient  writers  mention  a  tradition,  that 
Thucydides,  when  a  youth  of  sixteen  years  of  age,  while 
listening  to  Herodotus,  as  he  was  thus  reading  parts  of 
his  work,  was  so  much  affected  by  this  iioble  performance, 
that  he  shed  tears  ;  a  tradition,  which,  ii  is  proper  to  men- 
tion, has  been  doubted  by  many  receut  critics.  Hero- 

*  The  Greeks  reckoned  by  Olympiads,  or  periods  of  four  years  each, 
at  which  periods,  the  Olympic  games  were  celei  /ated.  See  Glossary 
at  the  end  of  the  Volume. 


JO  GREAT   EVENTS. 

dotus  has  been  called,  by  the  ancients,  the  '  Father  of  His- 
tory,'  because  he  was  the  first  who  presented  his  work,  not 
merely  as  a  series  of  events,  strung  together  like  beads, 
but  as  a  connected  whole,  composed  with  taste,  and  the 
pervading  judgement  of  one  who  remains  master  over  the 
whole  subject.  Herodotus  took  much  pains,  to  ascertain 
facts  and  acquire  information  ;  and,  in  so  far  as  we  inquire 
only,  whether  he  conscientiously  gave  what  he  had  learnt, 
he  unquestionably  deserves  the  character  of  great  veraci- 
ty. Historical  criticism,  however,  began  with  Thucydides. 
Although  Herodotus  has,  at  times,  related  superficial  im- 
pressions, or  may,  at  others,  have  allowed  himself  to  be 
imposed  upon,  (as,  for  instance,  in  Egypt,)  his  work,  which 
unites,  with  the  childlike  simplicity  of  the  historical  parts 
of  the  Old  Testament,  an  Homeric  grace,  is,  neverthe- 
less, a  fund  of  invaluable  information.  Respecting  the 
Persian  wars,  we  must  not  forget,  that  he  wrote  very  short- 
ly after  ;  and,  very  evidently,  was  at  great  pains  to  learn 
all  the  details,  which  it  was  in  his  power  to  collect.  He 
died  at  a  very  advanced  age. 

Conquest  after  conquest  having  been  added  to  the  vast 
empire  of  Persia,  its  ruler  longed  to  extend  his  dominion 
over  Europe,  also.  A  first  attempt  at  subduing  Greece 
had  been  made,  in  the  year  four  hundred  and  ninety  be- 
fore Christ,  when  the  Persians  were  repelled  and  defeated, 
at  Marathon,  a  hamlet  in  Attica,  (whither  the  Persians  had 
already  advanced,)  by  the  Athenians,  and  some  allies, 
under  Miltiades.  Aristides  fought,  likewise,  in  this  battle  : 
so  did  ^Eschylus.  Ten  years  later,  the  attempt  to  reduce 
Greece  into  a  Persian  satrapy,  (or  province,)  was  renew- 
ed by  Xerxes,  then  King  of  Persia.  But  the  heroic  sac- 
rifice of  Leonidas,  atThermopyla3,  and  the  victories  at  Sal- 
amis  and  Plataeae  once  more  repelled  the  swarming  hordes 
of  Asia,  and  in  a  manner,  that  the  attempt  at  conquest  was 
never  repeated.  It  is  impossible  for  us  fully  to  compre- 
hend the  unspeakable  blessings,  which  we  owe  to  these 
heroic  exertions  of  the  Greeks.  When  we  consider,  that 
our  whole  civilization  is,  in  a  great  measure,  but  a  fruit  of 
Greek  civilization,  received  through  Rome,  and,  at  a  later 
period,  again,  through  the  scattering  of  the  literary  treas- 
ures of  Greece  over  Europe,  1>\  the  conquest  of  Constan- 
tinople ; — and,  on  the  other  hand,  how  all  this  civilization 
must  have  been  nipped  in  the  bud.  had  Greece  become  a 
Persian  province,  and,  of  course,  been  assimilated  to 


BATTLE  AT  THERMOPYLAE.  11 

Asia,  as  has  been  the  case  with  Asia  Minor, — we  can  per- 
ceive only,  that  no  individual  mind  is  sufficiently  capacious 
to  follow  out  the  darkness  and  torpor  which,  it  would  seem 
certain,  must  have  prevailed,  where  now  the  greatest  men- 
tal activity,  the  highest  degree  of  civilization,  exists.  Nor 
is  the  battle  at  Thermopylee,  fought  on  the  ninth  of  July, 
four  hundred  and  eighty  years  before  Christ,  an  unessen- 
tial link  in  this  chain  of  great  events  ;  because  all,  who 
fought,  fell,  and  the  enemy  would  not  be  hindered  from 
penetrating  further  into  Greece.  The  example  of  Leoni- 
das,  and  his  devoted  band,  became  a  glorious  example  of 
the  invincible  power,  which  the  love  of  country  and  liber- 
ty may  impart  to  the  human  soul  ;  it  became  a  blessing 
and  bequest  to  all  Greece,  then,  and  at  later  periods  ; 
and,  through  Greece,  a  bequest  to  the  history  of  mankind, 
a  thrilling  example  for  all  ages  :  for  which  reason,  it  has 
been  considered  proper  to  select  it  for  this  place.  The 
following  extract  is  from  the  seventh  book  of  Herodotus, 
called  Polymnia. 

XERXES,  with  his  land  forces,  marching  through  Thes- 
saly  and  Achaia,  came,  on  the  third  day,  to  the  territories 
of  the  Melians.  While  he  was  in  Thessaly,  he  made  a 
trial  of  his  cavalry,  against  those  of  the  Thessalians, 
which  he  had  heard  were  the  best  in  Greece  ;  but,  in 
this  contest,  the  inferiority  of  the  Greeks  was  evidently 
conspicuous.  The  Onochonus  was  the  only  river  in 
Thessaly,  which  did  not  afford  sufficient  water  for  the 
army.  Of  those  of  Achaia,  the  Apidanus,  the  greatest 
of  them  all,  hardly  sufficed. 

Hence,  Xerxes  advanced  to  Melis,  near  a  bay  of  the 
sea,  where  the  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  tide  may  be 
seen  every  day.  Near  this  bay  is  an  extensive  plain, 
wide  in  one  part,  and  contracted  in  another  ;  round  this 
plain  are  certain  lofty  and  inaccessible  mountains,  called 
the  Trachinian  rocks,  and  enclosing  the  whole  region  of 
Melis.  Leaving  Achaia,  the  first  city  near  this  bay  is 
Anticyra.  This  is  washed  by  the  river  Sperchius ; 
which,  rising  in  the  country  of  the  Enieni,  here  empties 
itself  into  the  sea.  At  the  distance  of  twenty  furlongs,  is 
another  river,  called  Dyras,  which  is  said  to  have  risen, 


12  GREAT   EVENTS. 

spontaneously,  from  the  earth,  to  succor  Hercules,  when 
he  was  burning.  A  third  river,  called  Melas,  flows  at 
the  distance  of  twenty  furlongs  more. 

Within  five  furlongs  of  this  last  river,  stands  the  town 
of  Trachis.  In  this  part,  the  country  is  the  widest,  ex- 
tending from  the  mountains  to  the  sea,  and  comprehen- 
ding a  space  of  twenty-two  thousand  plethra.*  In  the 
mountainous  tract  which  encloses  Trachinia,  there  is  an 
opening,  to  the  west  of  Trachis,  through  which,  the 
Asopus  winds  round  the  base  of  the  mountain. 

To  the  west  of  this,  another  small  stream  is  found, 
named  nhe  Phoenix  ;  it  rises  in  these  mountains,  and 
empties  itself  into  the  Asopus.  The  most  contracted 
part  of  the  country  is  that,  which  lies  nearest  the  Phoe- 
nix, where  the  road  will  only  admit  one  carriage  to  pass. 
From  the  Phoenix  to  Thermopylae,  are  fifteen  furlongs  : 
between  the  Phoenix  and  Thermopylae,  is  a  village  nam- 
ed Anthela  ;  passing  which,  the  Asopus  meets  The  sea. 
The  country  contiguous  to  Anthela,  is  spacious.  Here 
may  be  seen  a  temple  of  Ceres  Arnphictyonis,  the  seats 
of  the  Amphictyons,  and  a  shrine  of  Amphictyon  himself. 

Xerxes  encamped  in  Trachinia,  at  Melis  ;  the  Greeks, 
in  the  Straits.  These  Straits,  the  Greeks,  in  general, 
call  Thermopylae  ;  the  people  of  the  country,  Pylae,  only. 
Here,  then,  were  the  two  armies  stationed  ;  Xerxes  oc- 
cupying all  the  northern  region,  as  far  as  Trachinia,  the 
Greeks,  that  of  the  south. 

The  Grecian  army,  which  here  waited  the  approach 
of  the  Persian,  was  composed  of  three  hundred  Spartans, 
in  complete  armor  ;  five  hundred  Tegeatae,  and  as  many 
Mantineans  ;  one  hundred  and  twenty  men  from  Or- 
chomenus  of  Arcadia  ;  a  thousand  men  from  the  rest  of 
Arcadia  ;  four  hundred  Corinthians  ;  two  hundred  from 
Phlius  ;  and  eighty  from  Mycenae.  The  above  came 
from  the  Peloponnesus.  From  Breotia,  tin-re  were  seven 
hundred  Thespians,  and  four  hundred  Thrbnns. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  aid  of  all  the  Opuntian 
Locrians  had  been  solicited,  together  with  a  thousand 

*  A  plethron  u  one  hundred  feel 


BATTLE  AT  THERMOPYLAE.  13 

Phoceans.  To  obtain  the  assistance  of  these,  the  Greeks 
had  previously  sent  emissaries  among  them  ;  saying,  that 
they  were  the  forerunners  only  of  another,  and  more  nu- 
merous body,  whose  arrival  was  every  day  expected. 
They  added,  that  the  defence  of  the  sea  was  confided  to 
the  people  of  Athens  and  JEgina,  in  conjunction  with  the 
rest  of  the  fleet ;  that  there  was  no  occasion  for  alarm, 
as  the  invader  of  Greece  was  not  a  god,  but  a  mere  hu- 
man being  ;  that  there  never  was,  nor  could  be,  any  mor- 
tal superior  to  the  vicissitudes  of  fortune  ;  that  the  most 
exalted  characters  were  exposed  to  the  greatest  evils. 
He,  therefore,  a  mortal,  now  advancing  to  attack  them, 
would  suffer  for  his  temerity.  These  arguments  proved 
effectual,  and  they  accordingly  marched  to  Trachis,  to 
join  their  allies. 

These  troops  were  commanded  by  different  officers, 
of  their  respective  countries  ;  but  the  man,  most  regard- 
ed, and  who  was  intrusted  with  the  chief  command,  was 
Leonidas,  of  Sparta.  His  ancestors  were  Anaxandrides, 
Leon,  Eurycratides,  Anaxander,  Eurycrates,  Polydorus, 
Alcamenes,  Teleclus,  Archelaus,  Agesilaus,  Doryssus, 
Leobotes,  Echestratus,  Agis,  Eurysthenes,  Aristodemus, 
Aristomachus,  Cleodseus,  Hyllus,  and  Hercules. 

An  accident  had  placed  him  on  the  throne  of  Sparta, 
for,  as  he  had  two  brothers,  older  than  himself,  Cleome- 
nes  and  Dorieus,  he  had  entertained  no  thoughts  of  the 
government ;  but  Cleomenes  dying  without  male  issue, 
and  Dorieus  not  surviving,  (for  he  ended  his  days  in 
Sicily,)  the  crown  came  to  Leonidas,  who  was  older 
than  Cleombrotus,  the  youngest  of  the  sons  of  Anaxan- 
drides, and  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  Cleomenes. 
On  the  present  occasion,  he  took  with  him,  to  Thermop- 
ylae, a  body  of  three  hundred  chosen  men,  all  of  whom 
had  children.  To  these,  he  added  those  Theban  troops, 
whose  number  I  have  before  mentioned,  and  who  were 
conducted  by  Leontiades,  son  of  Eurymachus.  Leoni- 
das had  selected  the  Thebans  to  accompany  him,  because 
a  suspicion  generally  prevailed,  that  they  were  secretly 
attached  to  the  Medes.  These,  therefore,  he  summoned 
to  attend  him,  to  ascertain  whether  they  would  actually 

2  Q.    E. 


14  GREAT  EVENTS. 

contribute  their  aid,  or  openly  withdraw  themselves  from 
the  Grecian  league.  With  sentiments  perfectly  hostile, 
they  nevertheless  sent  the  assistance  required. 

The  march  of  this  body,  under  Leonidas,  was  accel- 
erated by  the  Spartans,  that  their  example  might  stimu- 
late their  allies  to  action,  and  that  they  might  not  make 
their  delay  a  pretence  for  going  over  to  the  Medes.  The 
celebration  of  the  Carnian  festival*  protracted  the  march 
of  their  main  body  ;  but  it  was  their  intention  to  follow, 
with  all  imaginable  expedition,  leaving  only  a  small  de- 
tachment for  the  defence  of  Sparta.  The  rest  of  the  al- 
lies were  actuated  by  similar  motives  ;  for"the  Olympic 
games  happened  to  recur  at  this  period  ;  and,  as  they  did 
not  expect  an  engagement  would  immediately  take  place, 
at  Thermopylae,  they  sent  only  a  detachment  before  them. 

Such  were  the  motives  of  the  confederate  body.  The 
Greeks,  who  were  already  assembled  at  Thermopylae, 
were  seized  with  so  much  terror,  on  the  approach  of  the 
Persian,  that  they  consulted  about  a  retreat.  Those  of 
the  Peloponnesus  were,  in  general,  of  opinion,  that  they 
should  return,  and  guard  the  isthmus  ;  but,  as  the  Pho- 
ceans  and  Locrians  were  exceedingly  averse  to  this  meas- 
ure, Leonidas  prevailed  on  them  to  continue  on  their 
post.  He  resolved,  however,  to  send  messengers  round 
to  all  the  States,  requiring  supplies,  stating  that  their  num- 
ber was  much  too  small,  to  oppose  the  Medes  with  any 
effect. 

While  they  thus  deliberated,  Xerxes  sent  a  horseman, 
to  examine  their  number  and  their  motions.  He  had  be- 
fore heard,  in  Thessaly,  that  a  small  band  was  collected 
at  this  passage  ;  that  they  were  led  by  Lacedaemonians, 
and  by  Leonidas,  of  the  race  of  Hercules.  The  person 
employed  performed  his  duty  :  all  those,  who  were  with- 
out the  intrenchment,  he  was  able  to  reconnoiter  ;  those 
who  were  within,  for  the  purpose  of  defending  it,  eluded 
his  observation.  The  Lacedaemonians  were,  at  that  pc- 

*  A  festival  celebrated  at  Sparta,  in  honor  of  Apollo,  the  hisitln-n 
god  of  the  fine  arts,  of  medicine,  poetry,  music,  and  eloquence.  This 
festival  lasted  seven  days.  It  was  so  called,  from  Carneus,  one  of  tho 
names  of  Apollo. 


BATTLE  AT  THERMOPYLAE.  15 

riod,  stationed  without ;  of  these,  some  were  performing 
gymnastic  exercises,  while  others  were  employed  in  comb- 
ing their  hair.  He  was  greatly  astonished  ;  but  he  leis- 
urely surveyed  their  number  and  employments,  and  re- 
turned, without  molestation,  for  they  despised  him  too 
much  to  pursue  him.  He  related  to  Xerxes  all  that  he 
had  seen. 

Xerxes,  on  hearing  the  above,  was  little  aware  of  what 
was  really  the  case  ;  that  this  people  were  preparing  them- 
selves, either  to  conquer  or  to  die.  The  thing  appeared 
to  him  so  ridiculous,  that  he  sent  for  Demaratus,*  the 
son  of  Ariston,  who  was  then  with  the  army.  On  his 
appearing,  the  King  questioned  him,  on  this  behavior  of 
the  Spartans,  expressing  his  desire  to  know  what  it  might 
intimate.  "  I  have  before,  sir,"  said  Demaratus,  "  spok- 
en to  you  of  this  people,  at  the  commencement  of  this 
expedition  ;  and,  as  I  remember,  when  I  related  to  you 
what  I  knew  you  would  have  occasion  to  observe,  you 
treated  me  with  contempt.  I  am  conscious  of  the  Hanger 
of  declaring  the  truth,  in  opposition  to  your  prejudices  ; 
but  I  will,  nevertheless,  do  this.  It  is  the  determination 
of  these  men  to  dispute  with  us,  and  they  are  preparing 
themselves,  accordingly.  It  is  their  custom,  before  any 
enterprise  of  danger,  to  adorn  their  hair.  Of  this,  you 
may  be  assured,  that,  if  you  vanquish  these  and  their 
countrymen  in  Sparta,  no  other  nation  will  presume  to 
take  up  arms  against  you  ;  you  are  now  advancing  to  at- 
tack a  people  whose  realms  and  city  are  the  fairest,  and 
whose  troops  are  the  bravest,  of  Greece."  These  words 
seemed  to  Xerxes  preposterous  enough  ;  but  he  demand- 
ed, a  second  time,  how  so  small  a  number  could  contend 
with  his  army.  "  Sir,"  said  he,  "I  will  submit  to  suf- 
fer the  punishment  of  falsehood,  if  what  I  say  does  no? 
happen." 

Xerxes  was  still  incredulous  :  he  accordingly  kept  his 
position,  without  any  movement,  for  four  days,  in  expec- 
tation of  seeing  them  retreat.  On  the  fifth  day,  observing 
that  they  continued  on  their  post,  merely,  as  he  supposed, 

*  Demaratus  had  been  king  of  Sparta,  but,  having  been  deposed 
from  that  dignity,  had  joined  Xerxes. 


16  GREAT   EVENTS. 

from  the  most  impudent  rashness,  he  became  much  exas 
perated,  and  sent  against  them  a  detachment  of  Medes 
and  Cissians,  with  a  command  to  bring  them  alive  to  his 
presence.  The  Medes,  in  consequence,  attacked  them, 
and  lost  a  considerable  number.  A  re-enforcement  ar- 
rived ;  but,  though  the  onset  was  severe,  no  impression 
was  made.  It  now  became  universally  conspicuous,  and 
no  less  so  to  the  King  himself,  that  he  had  many  troops, 
but  few  men.  The  above  engagement  continued  all  day. 

The  Medes,  after  being  very  roughly  treated,  retired, 
and  were  succeeded  by  the  band  of  Persians,  called,  by 
the  King,  c  the  immortal,'  and  commanded  by  Hydarnes. 
These,  it  was  supposed,  would  succeed,  without  the  small- 
est difficulty.  They  commenced  the  attack,  but  made 
no  greater  impression  than  the  Medes  ;  their  superior 
numbers  were  of  no  advantage,  on  account  of  the  nar- 
rowness of  the  place ;  and  their  spears,  also,  were  shorter 
than  those  of  the  Greeks.  The  Lacedaemonians  fought 
in  a  mtmner,  which  deserves  to  be  recorded  ;  their  own 
excellent  discipline,  and  the  unskilfulness  of  their  adver- 
saries, were,  in  many  instances,  remarkable  ;  and  not  the 
least  so,  when,  in  close  ranks,  they  effected  a  retreat. 
The  Barbarians,*  seeing  them  retire,  pursued  them,  with 
a  great  and  clamorous  shout ;  but,  on  their  near  approach, 
the  Greeks  faced  about  to  receive  them.  The  loss  of  the 
Persians  was  prodigious,  and  a  few  also  of  the  Spartans 
fell.  The  Persians,  after  successive  efforts,  made  with 
great  bodies  of  their  troops,  to  gain  the  pass,  were  una- 
ble to  accomplish  it,  and  obliged  to  retire. 

It  is  said  of  Xerxes,  himself,  that,  being  a  spectator 
of  the  contest,  he  was  so  greatly  alarmed,  for  the  safety 
of  his  men,  that  he  leaped  thrice  from  his  throne.  On  the 
following  day,  the  Barbarians  succeeded  no  better  than  be- 
fore. They  went  to  the  onset,  as  against  a  contemptible 
number,  whose  wounds,  they  supposed,  would  hardly 
I )(-n nit  them  to  renew  the  combat :  but  the  Greeks, 
drawn  up  in  regular  divisions,  fought,  each  nation  on  it? 
respective  post,  except  the  Phoceans,  who  were  station- 

•  T>«  Greek*  called  the  inhabitant!  of  foreign  nation*,  Barbariant 


BATTLE  AT  THERMOPYLAE.  17 

ed  on  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  to  defend  the  pass. 
The  Persians,  experiencing  a  repetition  of  the  same 
treatment,  a  second  time  retired. 

While  the  King  was  exceedingly  perplexed,  what  con 
duct  to  pursue,  in  the  present  emergence,  Ephialtes,  the 
son  of  Eurydemus,  a  Melian,*  demanded  an  audience. 
He  expected  to  receive  some  great  recompense,  for 
showing  him  the  path,  which  led  over  the  mountain  to 
Thermopylae  ;  and  he,  indeed,  it  was,  who  thus  rendered 
ineffectual  the  valor  of  those  Greeks,  who  perished  on 
this  station.  This  man,  through  fear  of  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians, fled,  afterwards,  into  Thessaly  ;  but  the  Pylagorae, 
calling  a  council  of  the  Amphictyons,  at  Pylsea,  for  this 
express  purpose,  set  a  price  on  his  head,  and  he  was 
afterward  slain  by  Athenades,  a  Trachinian,  at  Anticyra, 
to  which  place  he  had  returned.  Athenades  was  induc- 
ed to  put  him  to  death,  for  some  other  reason,  which  I 
shall  afterwards  explain  ;  he  nevertheless  received  the 
reward  offered  by  the  Lacedaemonians.  This,  however, 
was  the  end  of  Ephialtes. 

On  this  subject,  there  is  also  a  different  report ;  for 
it  is  said,  that  Onetes,  son  of  Phanagoras,  a  Carystian, 
and  Corydalus,  of  Anticyra,  were  the  men  who  informed 
the  King  of  this  path,  and  conducted  the  Persians  round 
the  mountain.  This,  with  me,  obtains  no  credit ;  for, 
nothing  is  better  known,  than  that  the  Pylagorae  did  not 
set  a  price  on  the  heads  of  Onetes  or  Corydalus,  but  on 
that  of  Ephialtes,  the  Trachinian,  after,  as  may  be  pre- 
sumed, a  due  investigation  of  the  matter.  It  is  also  cer- 
tain, that  Ephialtes,  conscious  of  his  crime,  endeavored 
to  save  himself  by  flight.  Onetes,  being  a  Melian,  might, 
perhaps,  if  tolerably  acquainted  with  the  country,  have 
known  this  passage  ;  but  Ephialtes  was  the  man,  who 
showed  the  path  over  the  mountain,  and  him  I  write  down 
as  the  wicked  one. 

The  intelligence  of  Ephialtes,  gave  the  King  infinite 
satisfaction,  and  he  instantly  detached  Hydarnes,  with  the 
forces  under  his  command,  to  avail  himself  of  it.  They 

*  Ephialtes  is,  in  the  next  paragraph,  called  a  Trachinian.     Tra- 
ehinia  was  a  part  of  Melis. 
2* 


18  GREAT  EVENTS. 

left  the  camp  at  the  first  approach  of  evening.  The 
Melians,  the  natives  of  the  country,  discovered  this  path, 
and  by  it  conducted  the  Thessalians  against  the  Pho- 
ceans,  who  had  defended  it  by  an  intrenchment,  and  deem- 
ed themselves  secure.  It  had  never,  however,  proved 
of  any  advantage  to  the  Melians. 

The  path,  of  which  we  are  speaking,  commences  at 
the  river  Asopus.  This  stream  flows  through  an  aper- 
ture of  the  mountain,  called  Anopse,  which  is  also  the 
name  of  the  path.  This  is  continued,  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  mountain,  and  terminates  near  the  town  of 
Alpenus.  This  is  the  first  city  of  the  Locrians,  on  the 
side  next  the  Melians,  near  the  rock  called  Melampygus, 
by  the  residence  of  the  Cercopes.*  It  is  narrowest  at 
this  point. 

Following  this  track,  which  I  have  described,  the  Per- 
sians passed  the  Asopus,  and  marched  all  night,  keeping 
the  CEtean  mountains  on  the  right,  and  the  Trachinian 
on  the  left.  At  the  dawn  of  morning,  they  found  them- 
selves at  the  summit,  where,  as  I  have  before  described, 
a  band  of  a  thousand  Phoceans,  in  arms,  were  stationed, 
both  to  defend  their  own  country  and  this  pass.  The 
passage,  beneath,  was  defended  by  those  whom  I  have 
mentioned.  Of  this,  above,  the  Phoceans  had  voluntarily 
promised  Leonidas,  to  undertake  the  charge. 

The  approach  of  the  Persians  was  discovered  to  the 
Phoceans,  in  this  manner.  While  they  were  ascending 
the  mountain,  they  were  totally  concealed  by  the  thick 
groves  of  oak  ;  but,  from  the  stillness  of  the  air,  they 
were  discovered,  by  the  noise  they  made  by  trampling  on 
the  leaves  ;  a  thing  which  might  naturally  happen.  The 
Phoceans  ran  to  arms  ;  and,  in  a  moment,  the  Barbari- 
ans appeared,  who,  seeing  a  number  of  men,  precipitate- 
ly arming  themselves,  were  at  first  struck  with  astonish- 
ment. They  did  not  expect  an  adversary,  and  thry  li;ul 
fallen  in  among  armed  troops.  Hydarnes,  apprehending 
that  the  Phoceans  might  prove  to  be  Lacedaemonians,  in- 
quired of  Ephialtes  who  they  were.  When  he  was 

Tnese  people  were  robbers 


BATTLE  AT  THERMOPYLAE.  19 

informed,  he  drew  up  the  Persians  in  order  of  battle. 
The  Phoceans,  not  able  to  sustain  the  heavy  flight  of 
arrows,  retreated  up  the  mountain,  imagining  themselves 
the  objects  of  this  attack,  and  expecting  certain  destruc- 
tion. But  the  troops  with  Hydarnes  and  Ephialtes  did 
not  think  it  worth  their  while  to  pursue  them,  and  de- 
scended rapidly  the  opposite  side  of  the  mountain. 

To  those  Greeks  stationed  in  the  Straits  of  Thermop- 
ylae, Megistias,  the  soothsayer,  had  previously,  from  in- 
spection of  the  entrails,*  predicted  that-  death  awaited 
them  in  the  morning.  Some  deserters  had  also  informed 
them  of  the  circuit  the  Persians  had  taken  ;  and  this  intelli- 
gence was,  in  the  course  of  the  night,  circulated  through 
the  camp.  All  this  was  confirmed  by  their  sentinels, 
who,  early  in  the  morning,  fled  down  the  sides  of  the 
mountain.  In  this  predicament,  the  Greeks  called  a 
council,  who  were  greatly  divided  in  their  opinions. 
Some  were  for  remaining  on  their  stations,  others  advised 
a  retreat.  In  consequence  of  their  not  agreeing,  many 
of  them  dispersed  to  their  respective  cities  ;  a  part  re- 
solved to  continue  with  Leonidas. 

It  is  said,  that  those  who  retired,  only  did  so  in  com- 
pliance with  the  wishes  of  Leonidas,  who  was  desirous  to 
preserve  them  :  but  he  thought  that  he,  himself,  with  his 
Spartans,  could  not,  without  the  greatest  ignominy,  for- 
sake the  post  they  had  come  to  defend.  I  am  myrjelf  in- 
clined to  believe,  that  Leonidas,  seeing  his  allies  not  only 
reluctant,  but  totally  averse,  to  resist  the  danger  which 
menaced  them,  consented  to  their  retreat.  His  own  re- 
turn, he  considered  as  dishonorable,  while  he  was  con- 
vinced, that  his  defending  his  post  would  equally  secure 
his  own  fame,  and  the  good  of  Sparta.  In  the  very  be- 
ginning of  these  disturbances,  the  Spartans,  having  con- 
sulted the  oracle,  were  informed,  that  either  their  King 
must  die,  or  Sparta  be  vanquished  by  the  Barbarians. 
The~Dracle  was  communicated  in  hexameter  verses,  and 
was  to  this  effect : 

*  The  ancient  heathens  had  several  modes  of  divination,  one  of 
which  was,  by  the  entrails  of  animals  killed  for  sacrifice. 


20  GREAT   EVENTS. 

'«  To  you  who  dwell  in  Sparta's  ample  walls, 
Behold,  a  dire  alternative  befalls  ; 
Your  glorious  city  must  in  ruins  lie, 
Or,  slain  by  Persian  arms,  a  king  must  die  ; 
A  king,  descended  from-Herculean  blood. 
For,  lo  !  he  comes,  and  cannot  be  withstood  ; 
Nor  bulls  nor  lions  can  dispute  the  field, 
*T  is  Jove's  own  force,  and  this  or  that  must  yield." 

I  am  unwilling  to  presume  of  the  allies  that  departed,  that, 
differing  in  opinion  from  their  leader,  they  dishonorably 
deserted.  I  should  also  suppose,  that  the  conduct  of 
Leonidas  was  the  result  of  his  revolving  the  oracle  in  his 
mind,  and  of  his  great  desire  to  secure  to  the  Spartans, 
alone,  the  glory  of  this  memorable  action. 

To  me,  it  is  no  small  testimony  of  the  truth  of  the 
above3  that,  among  those  whom  Leonidas  dismissed,  was 
Megistias  himself.  He  was  of  Acarnania,  and,  as  some 
affirm,  descended  from  Melampus.  He  accompanied 
Leonidas  on  this  expedition,  and,  from  the  entrails,  had 
predicted  what  would  happen  :  he  refused,  however,  to 
leave  his  friends,  and  satisfied  himself  with  sending  away 
his  only  son,  who  had  followed  his  father  on  this  occa- 
sion. 

Obedient  to  the  direction  of  their  leader,  the  confeder- 
ates retired.  The  Thespians  and  Thebans  alone  remain- 
ed with  the  Spartans  :  the  Thebans,  indeed,  very  reluc- 
tantly ;  but  they  were  detained  by  Leonidas,  as  hostages. 
The  Thespians  were  very  zealous  in  the  cause,  and, 
refusing  to  abandon  their  friends,  perished  with  them. 
The  leader  of  the  Thespians  was  Demophilus,  son  of 
Diodromas. 

Xerxes,  early  in  the  morning,  offered  a  solemn  libation, 
then,  waiting  till  that  period  of  the  day,  when  the  forum 
is  fullest  of  people,*  he  advanced  from  his  camp.  To  the 
above  measure,  he  had  been  advised  by  Ephialtes.  The 
descent  from  the  mountain  is  of  much  shorter  extent,  than 
the  circuitous  ascent.  The  Barbarians,  with  Xerxes, 
approached.  Leonidas  and  his  Greeks  proceeded,  as  to 
inevitable  death,  a  much  greater  space  from  the  defile 
than  he  had  yet  done.  Till  now,  they  had  defended 

*  About  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning. 


BATTLE  AT  THERMOPYL-E.  21 

themselves  behind  their  intrenchment,  fighting  in  the  most 
contracted  part  of  the  passage  ;  but,  on  this  day,  they  en- 
gaged on  a  wider  space,  and  a  multitude  of  their  oppo- 
nents fell.  Behind  each  troop,  officers  were  stationed, 
with  whips  in  their  hands,  compelling,  with  blows,  their 
men  to  advance.  Many  of  them  fell  into  the  sea,  where 
they  perished  ;  many  were  trodden  under  foot  by  their 
own  troops,  without  exciting  the  smallest  pity  or  regard. 
The  Greeks,  conscious  that  their  destruction  was  at  hand, 
from  those  who  had  taken  the  circuit  of  the  mountain, 
exerted  themselves,  with  the  most  desperate  valor,  against 
the  Barbarian  assailants. 

Their  spears  being  broken  in  pieces,  they  had  recourse 
to  their  swords.  Leonidas  fell  in  the  engagement,  having 
greatly  signalized  himself;  and  with  him,  many  Spartans 
of  distinction,  as  well  as  others,  of  inferior  note.  I  am 
acquainted  with  the  names  of  all  the  three  hundred. 
Many  illustrious  Persians,  also,  were  slain,  among  whom, 
were  Abrocomes  and  Hyperanthes,  sons  of  Darius,  by 
Phrataguna,  the  daughter  of  Artanes.  Artanes  was  the 
brother  of  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  and  grandson 
of  Arsamis.  Having  married  his  daughter  to  Darius, 
as  she  was  an  only  child,  all  his  wealth  went  with  her. 

These  two  brothers  of  Xerxes  fell,  as  they  were  con- 
tending for  the  body  of  Leonidas.  Here  the  conflict  was 
the  most  severe  ;  till,  at  length,  the  Greeks,  by  their  su- 
perior valor,  four  times  repelled  the  Persians,  and  drew 
aside  the  body  of  their  prince.  In  -this  situation,  they 
continued,  till  Ephialtes  and  his  party  approached.  As 
soon  as  the  Greeks  perceived  them  at  hand,  the  scene 
was  changed,  and  they  retreated  to  the  narrowest  part  of 
the  pass.  Having  repassed  their  intrenchment,  they 
posted  themselves,  all  except  the  Thebans,  in  a  compact 
body,  on  a  hill  which  is  at  the  entrance  of  the  Straits,  and 
where  a  lion  of  stone*  has  been  erected,  in  honor  of  Le- 

*  Two  epigrams  on  this  subject  may  be  found  in  the  Analecta  Vete- 
rum  Poet.  Graec.  vol.  i.  132,  vol.  ii.  162.  The  bones  of  Leonidas  were 
carried  back  to  Sparta,  by  Pausanias,  forty  years  after  his  death  ;  they 
were  placed  in  a  monument,  opposite  the  theatre.  Every  year  they 
pronounced,  in  this  place,  a  funeral  oration,  and  celebrated  games,  ai 
which  Spartans  only  were  suffered  to  contend. 


22  GREAT  EVENTS. 

onidas.  In  this  situation,  they  who  had  swords  left  used 
them  against  the  enemy  ;  the  rest  exerted  themselves,  with 
their  hands  and  their  teeth.  The  Barbarians  rushing  on 
them,  some  in  front,  after  overturning  their  wall,  others 
surrounding  and  pressing  them  in  all  directions,  finally 
overpowered  them. 

Such  was  the  conduct  of  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Thes- 
pians ;  but  none  of  them  distinguished  themselves  so 
Miuch,  as  Dieneces  the  Spartan.  A  speech  of  his  is  re 
corded,  which  he  made  before  they  came  to  any  engage 
ment.  A  certain  Trachinian,  having  observed,  that  the 
Barbarians  would  send  forth  such  a  shower  of  arrows,  that 
their  multitude  would  obscure  the  sun,  he  replied,  like  a 
man  ignorant  of  fear,  and  despising  the  numbers  of  the 
Medes, — "  Our  Trachinian  friend  promises  us  great  ad- 
vantages :  if  the  Medes  obscure  the  sun's  light,  we  shall 
fight  with  them  in  the  shade,  and  be  protected  from  the 
heat."  Many  other  sayings  have  been  handed  down*, 
as  monuments  of  this  man's  fame. 

Next  to  him,  the  most  distinguished,  of  the  Spartans, 
were,  Alpheus  and  Maron,  two  brothers,  the  sons  of  Or- 
siphantus.  Of  the  Thespians,  the  most  conspicuous  was 
Dithyrambus,  son  of  Harmatidas. 

All  these  were  interred  in  the  place,  where  they  fell, 
together  with  such  of  the  confederates  as  were  slain  before 
the  separation  of  the  forces  by  Leonidas.  On  their  tomb, 
was  this  inscription  : 

"  Here,  once,  from  Pelops'  sea-girt  region  brought, 
Four  thousand  men  three  hostile  millions  fought." 

This  was  applied  to  them  all,  collectively.  The  Spar- 
tans were  thus  distinguished : 

*'  Go,  stranger,  and  to  listening  Spartans  tell, 
That  here,  obedient  to  their  laws,  we  fell." 

There  was  one  also  appropriated  to  the  prophet  Megis- 
tias  : 

'•  By  Medes  cut  ofl".  rchius*  wave, 

The  seer  Megistias  fills  this  glorious  gr 
Who  stood,  thn  fat»'  hr-  well  Ton-saw,  to  meet, 
And,  linked  with  Sparta's  leaders,  scorned  retreat." 

All  these  ornaments  and  inscriptions,  that  of  Megistias 


BATTLE  AT  THERMOPYLAE.  23 

alone  excepted,  were  here  placed  by  the  Amphictyons. 
Simonides,  son  of  Leoprepis,  inscribed  the  one  to  the  hon- 
or of  Megistias,  from  the  ties  of  private  hospitality. 

Of  these  three  hundred,  there  were  two,  named  Eury- 
tus  and  Aristodemus  :  both  of  them,  consistently  with  the 
discipline  of  their  country,  might  have  secured  themselves, 
by  retiring  to  Sparta,  for  Leonidashad  permitted  them  to 
leave  the  camp  ;  but  they  continued  at  Alpenus,  being 
both  afflicted  by  a  violent  disorder  of  the  eyes  ;  or,  if 
they  had  not  thought  proper  to  return  home,  they  had  the 
alternative  of  meeting  death  in  the  field  with  their  fellow- 
soldiers.  In  this  situation,  they  differed  in  opinion,  what 
conduct  to  pursue.  Eurytus,  having  heard  of  the  circuit 
made  by  the  Persians,  called  for  his  arms,  and,  putting 
them  on,  commanded  his  helot  to  conduct  him  to  the 
battle.  The  slave  did  so,  and  immediately  fled,  while 
his  master  died,  fighting  valiantly.  Aristodemus  pusil- 
lanimously  stayed  where  he  was.  If  either  Aristodemus, 
being  individually  diseased,  had  retired  home,  or  if  they 
had  returned  together,  I  cannot  think  that  the  Spartans 
could  have  shown  any  resentment  against  them  ;  but,  as 
one  of  them  died  in  the  field,  which  the  other,  who  was 
precisely  in  the  same  circumstances,  refused  to  do,  it  was 
impossible  not  to  be  greatly  incensed  against  Aristode- 
mus. 

The  safe  return  of  Aristodemus  to  Sparta  is  by  some 
thus  related  and  explained.  There  are  others,  who  as- 
sert, that  he  was  despatched  on  some  business  from  the 
army,  and  might,  if  he  had  pleased,  have  been  present  at 
the  battle,  but  that  he  saved  himself,  by  lingering  on  the 
way.  They  add,  that  his  companion,  employed  on  the 
same  business,  returned  to  the  battle,  and  there  fell. 

Aristodemus,  on  his  return,  was  branded  with  disgrace 
and  infamy.  No  one  would  speak  with  him  ;  no  one 
would  supply  him  with  fire  ;  and  the  opprobrious  term 
of  trembler,  was  annexed  to  his  name  :  but  he  afterwards, 
at  the  battle  of  Plataeae,  effectually  atoned  for  his  former 
conduct. 

It  is  also  said,  that  another  of  the  three  hundred  sur- 
vived :  his  name  was  Pantites,  and  he  had  been  sent  on 


24  GREAT  EVENTS. 

some  business  to  Thessaly.     Returning  to  Sparta,  he  felt 
himself  in  disgrace,  and  put  an  end  to  his  life. 

The  Thebans,  under  the  command  of  Leontiades, 
hitherto  constrained  by  force,  had  fought  with  the  Greeks, 
against  the  Persians  ;  but,  as  soon  as  they  saw  that  the 
Persians  were  victorious,  when  Leonidas  and  his  party 
retired  to  the  hill,  they  separated  themselves  from  the 
Greeks.  In  the  attitude  of  suppliants,  they  approached 
the  Barbarians,  assuring  them,  what  was  really  the  truth, 
that  they  were  attached  to  the  Medes  ;  that  they  had 
been  among  the  first  to  render  earth  and  water  ;  that  they 
had  only  come  to  Thermopylae  on  compulsion,  and  could 
not  be  considered  as  accessary  to  the  slaughter  of  the 
king's  troops.  The  Thessalians  confirming  the  truth  of 
what  they  had  asserted,  their  lives  were  preserved.  Some 
of  them,  however,  were  slain  ;  for,  as  they  approached, 
the  Barbarians  put  several  to  the  sword  ;  but  the  greater 
part,  by  the  order  of  Xerxes,  had  the  royal  marks  im- 
pressed on  them,  beginning  with  Leontiades  himself.  Eu- 
rymachus,  his  son,  was  afterwards  slain,  at  the  head  of 
four  hundred  Thebans,  by  the  people  of  Plataeae,  while  he 
was  making  an  attempt  on  their  city. 

In  this  manner,  the  Greeks  fought  at  Thermopylae. 
Xerxes  afterwards  sent  for  Demaratus,  and  thus  addres- 
sed him  :  u  I  have,  already,  Demaratus,  had  experience 
of  your  truth  and  integrity  ;  every  thing  has  happened,  as 
you  foretold  ;  tell  me,  then,  how  many  of  the  Lace- 
daemonians may  there  be  left  ?  how  many  of  like  valor 
with  those  who  have  perished  ?  or,  are  they  all  alike  ?" 
"  Sir,"  replied  Demaratus,  "the  Lacedaemonians  are  a 
numerous  people,  and  possessed  of  many  cities  ;  but  I  will 
answer  your  question  more  particularly.  Sparta,  itself, 
contains  eight  thousand  men,  all  of  whom  are  equal  in  val- 
or to  those  who  fought  here  ;  the  other  Lacedaemonians, 
though  inferior  to  those,  are  still  brave."  "  Tell  i. 
then,"  returned  Xerxes,  "  how  we  may  subdue  these 
men,  with  least  trouble  :  you,  \\holiave  been  their  Prince, 
must  know  what  measures  they  are  likely  to  pursue." 

"  Since,"  answered  Demaratus,  "  you  place  a  confi- 
dence in  my  opinion,  ii  is  proper  that  I  should  speak  to 


BATTLE  AT  THERMOPYLAE.  25 

you  from  the  best  of  my  judgement ;  I  would,  therefore, 
recommend  you  to  send  a  fleet  of  three  hundred  vessels 
to  the  coast  of  Lacedaemonia.  Contiguous  to  this,  is  an 
island  named  Cythera,  of  which  Chilon,  the  wisest  of  our 
countrymen,  observed,  that  it  would  be  better  for  the 
Spartans,  if  it  were  buried  in  the  sea,  foreseeing  the  prob- 
ability of  such  a  measure  as  I  now  recommend.  From 
this  island,  your  troops  may  spread  terror  over  Sparta. 
Thus,  a  war  so  very  near  them,  may  remove -from  you 
any  apprehension  of  their  assisting  the  rest  of  Greece, 
which  will  then  be  open  to  your  arms,  and  which,  if  sub- 
dued, will  leave  Sparta  hardly  able  to  oppose  you.  If 
iny  advice  be  disregarded,  you  may  expect  what  follows. 
There  is  a  narrow  isthmus  in  the  Peloponnesus,  in  which 
all  its  people  will  assemble,  in  resistance  to  your  arms, 
and  where  you  will  have  far  more  violent  contests  to  sus- 
tain, than  you  have  here  experienced.  If  you  execute 
what  I  propose,  you  may,  without  a  battle,  become  mas- 
ter of  the  isthmus,  with  all  the  cities  of  the  Peloponnesus." 
Achaemenes,  the  brother  of  Xerxes,  and  commander 
of  the  fleet,  was  present  at  this  interview.  Fearful  that 
the  King  might  do  as  he  had  been  advised,  he  thus  deliv- 
ered his  sentiments  :  u  You  seem,"  said  he,  u  too  much 
inclined  to  listen  to  a  man,  who  either  envies  your  pros- 
perity, or  wishes  to  betray  you.  It  is  the  character  of 
Greeks,  to  envy  the  successful,  and  to  hate  their  superi- 
ors. We  have  already  lost,  by  shipwreck,  four  hundred 
vessels  ;  if  we  detach  three  hundred  more  to  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, the  force  of  our  opponents  will  be  equal  to  our 
own.  Our  united  fleet  will  be  far  superior  to  theirs,  and, 
with  respect  to  any  efforts  they  can  make,  invincible. 
If  your  forces  by  land,  and  your  fleet  by  sea,  advance  at 
the  same  time,  they  will  be  able  mutually  to  assist  each 
other  :  if  you  separate  them,  the  fleet  will  not  be  able  to 
assist  you,  nor  you  the  fleet.  It  becomes  you  to  delib- 
erate well  on  your  own  affairs,  and  not  to  concern  your- 
self about  those  of  your  enemies,  nor  to  inquire,  where 
they  will  commence  their  hostilities,  what  measures  they 
will  take,  or  how  numerous  they  are.  Let  them  attend 
to  their  affairs,  we  to  ours.  If  the  Lacedaemonians  shall 

3  G.   ft 


26  GREAT   EVENTS. 

presume  to  attack  the  Persians,  they  will  be  far  from  re- 
pairing the  loss  they  have  already  sustained." 

"  Achaemenes,"  answered  Xerxes,  "  I  approve  your 
counsel,  and  will  follow  it.  The  sentiments  of  Demara- 
tus  are,  I  well  know,  dictated  by  his  regard  to  my  inter- 
ests ;  but  your  advice,  to  me,  seems  preferable.  I  can- 
not be  persuaded,  that  he  has  any  improper  intentions, 
events  having  proved  the  wisdom  of  his  former  counsels. 
One  man  frequently  envies  the  prosperity  of  another,  and 
indulges  in  secret  sentiments  of  hatred  against  him  ;  nei- 
ther will  he,  when  he  requires  it,  give  him  salutary  ad- 
vice, unless,  indeed,  from  some  surprising  effort  of  vir- 
tue ;  but  a  friend  exults  in  a  friend's  happiness  ;  has  no 
sentiments  for  him  but  those  of  the  truest  kindness,  and 
gives  him  always  the  best  advice.  Let  no  one,  therefore, 
in  future,  use  any  invective  against  Demaratus,  who  is  my 
friend." 

When  Xerxes  had  finished,  he  went  to  view  the  dead, 
among  whom  was  Leonidas.  When  he  heard  that  he 
had  been  the  Prince,  and  leader  of  Sparta,  he  ordered  his 
head  to  be  cut  off,  and  his  body  to  be  suspended  on  a 
cross.  This  incident  is  no  small  proof  to  me,  among 
many  others,  that  Xerxes  indulged  the  warmest  indigna- 
tion against  Leonidas,  while  he  was  alive.  He  otherwise 
would  not  have  treated  him,  when  dead,  with  such  bar- 
barity. I  know  that  the  Persians,  of  all  mankind,  most 
highly  honor  military  virtue.  The  orders,  however,  of 
the  King,  were  executed. 

I  shall  now  return  to  the  thread  of  our  history.  The 
Spartans  were  the  first  who  were  acquainted  with  the 
King's  designs  against  Greece  ;  they  sent  to  the  oracle, 
on  the  occasion,  and  received  the  answer  I  have  related. 
The  intelligence  was  communicated  to  them  in  an  extra- 
ordinary manner.  ;  Demaratus,  the  son  of  Ariston,  had 
taken  refuge  among  the  Medes,  and,  as  there  is  every 
reason  to  suppose,  was  not  friendly  to  the  Spartans.  He, 
however,  it  was,  who  informed  them  of  what  was  medita- 
ted, whether  to  serve  or  insult  them,  must  be  left  to  con- 
jecture. When  Xerxes  had  resolved  on  this  expedition 
against  Greece,  Demaratus,  who  was  at  Susa,  and  ao 


BATTLE  AT  THERMOPYLAE.  27 

quainted  with  his  intentions,  determined  to  inform  the 
Lacedaemonians.  As  this  was  both  difficult  and  danger- 
ous, he  employed  the  following  means  :  he  took  two  tab- 
lets, and  erased  the  wax  from  each  ;  then  inscribed  the 
purpose  of  the  King  on  the  wood.  This  done,  he  replaced 
the  wax,  that  the  several  guards,  on  the  road,  from  see- 
ing the  empty  tablets,  might  have  no  suspicion  of  the 
business.  When  these  were  delivered  at  Lacedaemon, 
the  people  had  no  conception  of  their  meaning,  till,  as  I 
have  been  informed,  Gorgo,  the  daughter  of  Cleomenes, 
and  wife  of  Leonidas,  removed  the  difficulty.  Imagin- 
ing what  might  be  intended,  she  ordered  the  wax  to  be 
removed,  and  thus  made  the  contents  of  the  tablets  known. 
The  Lacedaemonians,  after  examining  what  was  inscribed 
on  the  wood,  circulated  the  intelligence  through  Greece. 


28  GREAT  EVENTS. 


THE  DEATH  OF  SOCRATES. 


BY  PLATO. 

PLATO,  one  of  the  greatest  philosophers  of  antiquity,  was 
ihe  disciple  of  Socrates,  who  diecUabout  four  hundred  years 
before  Christ.  The  remark,  which  was  made  in  the  intro- 
ductory lines  to  the  preceding  extract,  as  to  the  succession 
of  Greek  master  minds,  in  history  and  poetry, — the  master 
kindling  a  sacred  fire  in  the  pupil,  who  rises  to  become 
a  master  in  turn, — applies,  likewise,  to  the  philosophy  of 
Greece.  Socrates  was  the  master  of  Plato,  or  his  "  men- 
tal father,"  as  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos  call  the 
teacher  of  moral  truths.  Plato,  in  like  manner,  became 
the  master  of  Aristotle. 

When  Socrates  began  to  teach  at  Athens,  the  Sophists 
had  greatly  perverted  the  cultivation  of  the  intellect,  to  the 
serious  detriment  of  the  pursuit  of  truth,  and  the  stability  of 
moral  principles.  They  sharpened  the  intellect,  indeed  ; 
but,  like  a  pointed  instrument,  which  may  be  used  for  the 
worst  purposes.  Right  and  Wrong,  Just  and  Unjust,  Vir- 
tuous and  Vicious,  became,  with  them,  so  many  technical 
terms,  only  designating  a  degree  of  convenience  or  incon 
venience,  according  to  circumstances.  Socrates  was  the 
first,  who  taught,  once  more,  virtue  and  purity,  as  objects 
worthy  of  being  cultivated  for  their  own  sake,  and  of  being 
made  the  subjects  of  the  deepest  reflection  of  the  acutest 
mind.  With  reference  to  these  noble  endeavors,  and  the 
fact  that  law  and  justice  must  ever  look  for  their  original 
foundation,  for  their  first  starting  point,  to  the  immutable 
principles  of  morality,  Lord  Mansfield  boldly  called  Soc- 
rates "the  great  lawyer  of  antiquity."* 

Socrates  taught  for  many  years,  at  Athens,  in  the  course 
^f  which,  he  had  naturally  frequent  occasion  to  attack  or 
reprimand  error,  folly,  or  vice  ;  nor  did  he  ever  hesitate 
fearlessly  to  do  so,  wherever  he  met  with  them,  whether  it 
w;i-  in  the  powerful  and  renowned,  or  the  humble  and  un- 
observed. This,  to£rtli«T  with  the  acute  manner  in  whicn 
he  diffused  information,  by  drawing  answers  from  his  an- 

•  HOLUDAY,  p.  105. 


DEATH   OF   SOCRATES.  29 

tagonist,  and  leading  him,  through  his  own  assertions,  tc 
the  untenableness  of  his  positions,  and  also  his  pure  and 
reproachless  life,  created  him  many  enemies.  The  vanity 
of  the  Sophists  was  humbled  ;  the  pride  of  those  in  power 
irritated  ;  the  jealousy  of  all  excited,  by  the  increasing 
number  of  those,  who  openly  appeared  as  the  followers  of 
the  Sage.  It  happened,  as  it  will  always  happen,  in  such 
cases,  when  vanity,  conscious  vice,  or  arrogant  ignorance, 
feel  reproached  and  humbled,  and  the  spotless  life  of  him 
who  humbles  them  affords  not  even  a  handle  for  slander. 
Violence  is  resorted  to,  in  order  to  crush,  where  means  are 
lacking  to  defeat.  When  intellectual  victory  cannot  be 
hoped  for,  physical  undoing  must  stand  in  place  of  it. 

Socrates  had  never  taken  a  leading  part  in  politics  ;  it 
would  have  interfered  with  his  divine  career  :  but  he  had 
always  done  his  duty,  as  a  good  citizen.  He  had  bravely 
fought  for  his  country  at  Plataese  ;  he  had  gone  to  vote, 
when  called  upon,  as  a  simple  citizen  ;  and  had  done  so, 
conscientiously  and  boldly,  as  the  reader  will  see  from  the 
sequel.  In  this  point  of  view,  he  could  not  be  attacked  ; 
nor  was  there  any  definite  crime,  which  could  be  laid  to 
his  charge,  with  any  degree  of  plausibility.  What  wa^ 
more  natural,  than  that  his  enemies  should  resort  to  relig- 
ious charges,  and  endeavor  to  rouse  the  fanaticism  of  the 
multitude  ?  He  has  taught  other  gods,  than  our  State,  by 
established  religion,  acknowledges  !  He  corrupts  the 
youth,  by  giving  them  a  distaste  to  what  we  have  eaact- 
ed  !  He  is  a  rebel  !  The  power-holders  were  toH  they  had 
been  offended,  and  were  called  upon  to  ruin  the  offender  ! 

If  Socrates  had  led  a  spotless  life,  he  showed  in  his 
death,  such  composure,  unruffled  serenity,  and  conscious- 
ness of  purity,  that,  besides  all  the  sympathy,  which  its 
recital  must  awaken,  in  every  heart,  in  which  a  spark  of 
virtue  is  left,  we  feel  amazed  at  the  moral  grandeur  of  this 
man,  standing  alone,  and  unsupported  by  religion,  without 
any  other  reliance  than  that  which  his  pure  soul  derived 
from  virtue  itself,  for  its  own  sake,  its  own  purity.  Socra- 
tes might  have  escaped  his  unjust  death  ;  he  was  pressed 
to  do  so  :  but  he  would  not  disobey  the  laws  of  his  country, 
now,  when  they  weighed  hard  upon  him,  since  he  had  en- 
joyed their  protection  so  long,  during  life.  He  could  not 
lighten  the  burden  of  death,  by  the  joyous  considerations  of 
the  Christian  martyr,  that  even  the  bitterest  end,  endured 
for  the  profession  of  his  Lord,  is  but  a  trifling  return  for  the 
3* 


30  GREAT  EVENTS. 

death  which  his  Master  has  suffered  for  him.  He  could 
not  cheer  and  calm  his  soul  by  a  firm  and  clear  conviction 
of  an  endless  life  of  reward,  for  a  finite  time  of  suffering, 
however  admirable  his  great  mind  may  also  appear,  in  this 
particular,  that  it  elevated  itself  to  a  belief  in  the  immo* 
taiity  of  the  soul,  and  a  purer  deity.  To  the  last  breath 
of  his  untarnished  life,  he  appears  to  us  as  the  great  hero 
of  virtue.  "  Socrates,"  says  a  modern  philosopher,*  "  is 
a  classic  masterpiece  of  virtue  ;"  so  grand  is  the  image,  in 
its  outlines,  so  perfect  in  its  proportions. 

I  shall  be  able  to  give  but  a  very  brief  extract  from  those 
writings  of  Plato,  in  which  the  last  moments  of  his  master 
are  described  ;  but  it  has  ever  appeared  to  me,  that,  as  it 
is  our  bounden  duty  not  to  neglect  the  choicest  treasures, 
which,  in  the  toilsome  course  of  civilization,  may  have 
been  brought  to  light,  those  Dialogues  of  Plato  ought  to  be 
read  by  every  one,  even  if  the  works,  for  the  perusal  of 
which,  a  man  in  the  practical  pursuits  of  life  may  find  time, 
be  reduced  to  the  very  smallest  number.  They  have  the 
salutary  power  of  exalting  the  reader's  mind,  and  imparting 
a  feeling  of  nobleness  and  purity  to  his  soul.  Translations 
have  made  them  accessible  to  all.  The  Apology  of  Plato 
was  read  and  re-read  by  Cicero  ;  who  says',  that  he  could 
never  peruse  it,  without  tears  ;  and,  if  the  remarks  just 
made  were  intended  chiefly  for  the  general  reader,  it  is  no 
less  true,  in  my  opinion,  that  the  same  writings  should  al- 
ways belong  to  those  few,  which  the  growing  inner  and 
outer  experience  of  a  man  of  reflection  and  literary  ac- 
quirement has  taught  him  to  select,  for  a  regular  and  pe- 
riodical reperusal.  Some  of  these  will  always  be  selected, 
and  ought  to  be  so,  with  particular  regard  to  the  individu- 
ality of  each  man  ;  others  are  alike  important  for  all  ;  and 
to  these  belong,  I  believe,  '  Plato's  Apology,'  and  the  men- 
tioned Dialogues,  entitled  '  Criton  and  Pha^don.' 

The  following  is  taken  from  the  second  volume  of  '  His- 
torical Parallels,'  as  offering  as  judicious  a  combination  of 
extracts,  as  can  be  made  for  our  purpose. 

AFTER  Socrates  had  continued  to  teach,  at  least  twenty- 
four  years,  (for  the  date  of  the  l  Clouds'f  informs  us,  that 
he  had  obtained  some  notoriety  before  the  year  423,  B.C., 

*  Hegel,  a  late  German  philosopher. 

t  A  comedy  of  Aristophanes,  in  which  Socrates  is  ridiculed. 


DEATH  OP  SOCRATES.  31 

m  which  that  comedy  was  acted,)  a  criminal  accusation 
was  brought  against  him,  in  399,  B.  C.,  to  the  following 
effect :  "  Socrates  does  amiss,  not  recognising  the  gods 
which  the  State  recognises,  and  introducing  other  new  di- 
vine natures  ;  and  he  does  amiss,  in  that  he  corrupts  the 
young."  The  originator  of  the  charge  was  an  obscure 
person,  named  Melitus,*  a  poet,  and  a  bad  one  ;  but  he 
was  joined  by  Lycon,  an  orator,  and  Anytus,  a  man  of 
wealth  and  consideration  in  Athens.  The  cause  of  that 
enmity,  which  led  to  this  prosecution,  is  nowhere  clearly 
explained.  In  the  apology  of  Plato,  Socrates  says,  that 
his  three  accusers  attacked  him,  "  Melitus  being  my  en- 
emy on  account  of  the  poets,  but  Anytus  on  account  of 
the  artificers  and  politicians,  and  Lycon  on  account  of  the 
orators."  This  passage  would  rather  suggest  the  notion 
of  private  enmity,  which  is,  in  some  degree,  confirmed  by 
another  passage  in  the  apology  of  Xenophon,  where  Soc- 
rates refers  the  dislike  of  Anytus,  to  a  comment,  made 
on  his  style  of  bringing  up  his  son.  The  causes  of  hatred 
ascribed  to  Melitus  and  Lycon  must  be  explained, — the 
one,  by  Socrates'  avowed  contempt  for  the  fictions  of  po- 
ets ;  the  other,  to  his  equally  avowed  abhorrence  of  that 
system  of  instruction  practised  by  the  Sophists  ;  of  which 
one,  and  that  the  most  popular  branch,  was  the  teaching 
oratory  as  an  art,  by  which  any  person  could  be  enabled 
to  speak  on  any  subject,  however  ignorant  concerning  the 
real  merits  of  it.  This  desire  to  remove  Socrates  exist- 
ing, whatever  its  origin,  it  could  not  be  gratified,  without 
finding  some  plausible  ground  to  go  upon.  Nothing  could 
be  objected  to  his  actions  ;  as  a  soldier,  he  had  distin- 
guished himself  for  bravery  ;  as  a  public  officer,  he  had 
shown  inflexible  integrity,  when  the  infamous  vote  was 
passed,  for  putting  to  death  the  generals  who  won  the 
battle  of  Arginusse  ;  and,  on  another  occasion,  as  a  citi- 
zen, he  had  refused,  when  ordered  to  apprehend  Leon  of 
Salamis,*  at  the  hazard  of  life,  to  perform  an  act  contrary 
to  the  laws.  The  real  or  alleged  character  of  his  philos- 

*  Schleiermacher  reads,  Meletus. 
f  Mitford,  chap.  xxxi.  2. 


82  GREAT  EVENTS. 

ophy  and  teaching,  then,  was  the  only  handle  against  him. 
It  was  difficult  to  find  just  ground  of  complaint  against  it. 
But  to  invent  false  charges  is  never  difficult ;  and  those 
which  came  readiest  to  hand  were  the  same,  to  a  certain 
extent,  as  Aristophanes,  in  ignorance  or  wantonness,  had 
long  before  brought  against  him.  "  What,"  he  says  in 
the  '  Apology,'  "  do  my  accusers  say  ?  It  is  this,  '  Soc- 
rates acts  wickedly,  and,  with  criminal  curiosity,  investi- 
gates things  under  the  earth,  and  in  the  heavens.  He 
also  makes  the  worse  to  be  the  better  argument,  and  he 
teaches  these  things  to  others.'  Such  is  the  accusation  ; 
for  things  of  this  kind,  you  also  have  yourselves  seen  in 
the  comedy  of  Aristophanes  ;  for  there,  one  Socrates  is 
carried  about,  who  affirms,  that  he  walks  upon  the  air, 
and  idly  asserts  many  other  trifles  of  this  nature  ;  of  which 
things,  however,  I  neither  know  much,  nor  little."  If 
we  are  to  take  this,  literally,  it  involves  the  charge  of  not 
believing  in  any  gods  at  all,  for  such  is  the  character  of 
Socrates,  as  given  in  the  '  Clouds  ;'  a  charge,  the  falsity 
of  which  is  amply  proved,  both  by  Xenophon  and  Plato, 
in  their  respective  c  Apologies'.  The  charge  of  introduc- 
ing new  deities  refers  to  the  demon,  or  divine  nature,  by 
which  Socrates  professed  to  be  guided  in  his  conduct, 
from  a  child,  and  which  manifested  itself,  by  an  internal 
voice  ;  which  never  suggested  any  thing,  but  very  fre- 
quently warned  him  from  that  which  he  was  about  to  do. 
False,  however,  as  the  charge  against  him  was,  in  all  res- 
pects, Socrates  appears  to  have  felt  that  his  condemnation 
was  certain,  and  to  have  taken  no  pains,  either  to  avert 
it,  or  to  escape.  The  orator  Lysias  is  said  to  have  com- 
posed a  labored  speech,  which  he  offered  to  the  philoso- 
pher, to  be  used  as  his  defence  ;  but  he  declined  it.  His 
trial  came  on  before  the  court  of  Heliaea,  the  most  nu- 
merous tribunal  in  Athens,  in  which  a  body  of  judges  sat, 
fluctuating  in  number,  but  usually  consisting  of  several 
hundreds,  chosen,  by  lot,  from  among  the  body  of  the  cit- 
izens. It  was  not,  therefore,  to  a  bench  of  judges,  such 
as  we  are  used  to  see  them,  bred  to  the  law,  and  pre- 
sumed, at  least,  to  be  dispassionate  and  unprejudiced, 
but  to  a  popular  assembly,  that  he  had  to  plead.  Never- 


DEATH   OF  SOCRATES.  33 

theless,  he  abstained,  studiously,  from  every  means  of 
working  on  the  passions,  even  to  the  usual  method  of  sup- 
plication and  moving  pity,  by  the  introduction  of  his 
weeping  family.  Such  appeals,  he  thought  unbecoming 
his  own  character,  or  the  gravity  of  a  court  of  justice,  in 
which,  the  question  of  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  a  prison- 
er ought,  alone,  to  be  regarded.  Judgement,  as  he  ex- 
pected, was  pronounced  against  him,  though  only  by  a 
majority  of  three.  By  the  Athenian  law,  the  guilt  of  an 
accused  person  being  affirmed  by  the  judges,  a  second 
question  arose,  concerning  the  amount  of  his  punishment. 
The  accuser,  in  his  charge,  stated  the  penalty  which  he 
proposed  to  inflict ;  the  prisoner  had  the  privilege  of 
speaking  in  mitigation  of  judgement,  and  naming  that 
which  he  considered  adequate  to  the  offence.  Socrates, 
at  this  stage  of  his  trial,  still  preserved  the  same  high  tone. 
If,  he  said,  I  am  to  estimate  my  own  punishment,  it  must 
be  according  to  my  merits  ;  and,  as  these  are  great,  I  de- 
serve that  reward  which  is  suited  to  a  poor  man,  who  has 
been  your  benefactor,  namely,  a  public  maintenance  in 
the  Prytaneium.*  Death,  he  said,  he  did  not  fear,  not 
knowing  whether  it  were  a  change  for  the  better  or  the 
worse.  Imprisonment  and  exile,  he  esteemed  worse  that- 
death  ;  and,  being  persuaded  of  his  own  innocence,  he 
would  never  be  party  to  a  sentence  of  evil  on  himself. 
To  a  fine,  if  he  had  money  to  pay  it,  he  had  no  objec- 
tion, since  the  loss  of  the  money  would  leave  him  no  worse 
off  than  before  ;  and,  as  he  was  able  to  pay  a  mina  of 
silver,  (about  twenty  dollars,)  he  would  assess  his  pun- 
ishment at  that  sum  :  or,  rather,  at  thirty  minae,  as  Plato, 
and  three  other  of  his  disciples,  expressed  a  wish  to  be- 
come his  sureties  to  that  amount. 

This  was  not  a  line  of  conduct  likely  to  excite  pity., 
and  sentence  of  death  was  passed,  by  a  larger  majority 
than  before.  He  again  addressed  a  short  speech  to  his 
judges,  in  which  he  tells  them,  that,  for  the  sake  of  cut- 
ting off  a  little  from  his  life,  already  verging  on  the  grave, 


*  This  public  maintenance  was  esteemed  one  of  the  highest  honors 
that  the  State  could  confer. 


34  GREAT  EVENTS. 

they  had  incurred  and  brought  on  the  city  a  lasting  re- 
proach, and  that  he  might  have  escaped,  if  he  would  have 
condescended  to  use  supplications  and  lamentations.  Of 
his  mode  of  defence,  however,  he  repented  not,  seeing 
that  he  would  rather  die,  having  so  spoken,  than  live  by 
the  use  of  unworthy  methods  ;  and  that  to  escape  death 
was  far  less  difficult,  than  to  avoid  baseness.  He  conclu- 
ded, by  an  address  to  the  judges,  who  had  voted  for  his 
acquittal,  stating  the  grounds  of  his  hopes  that  death  would 
be  a  change  for  the  better  ;  the  first  of  which  is,  that  the 
demon  had  never  opposed  or  checked  his  intended  line 
of  conduct,  during  the  whole  of  these  proceedings,  nor, 
in  his  speeches  had  it  ever  stopped  him  from  saying  any 
thing  that  he  meant  to  say,  as  it  was  used  often  to  do,  in 
conversation  :  from  which  he  inferred,  that  his  invisible 
guide  had  approved  of  all  that  he  did,  and  that,  therefore, 
a  good  thing  was  about  to  happen  to  him.  Death,  he 
said,  was  either  insensibility,  or  a  migration  of  the  soul  : 
in  the  former  case,  as  compared  with  life,  he  esteemed 
it  a  change  for  the  better  ;  in  the  latter,  if  the  general  be- 
lief was  true,  what  greater  good  could  there  be,  than  to 
meet  and  enjoy  the  society  of  the  great  men  of  antiquity. 
Urging,  therefore,  these  just  judges  to  look  confidently 
towards  death,  and  to  believe  that,  to  a  good  man,  dead 
or  alive,  no  real  harm  can  happen,  he  concludes, — "  It  is 
time  that  we  should  depart,  I  to  die,  you  to  live  ;  but 
which  of  us  to  the  better  thing,  is  known  to  the  Divinity, 
alone." 

Death  usually  followed  close  upon  condemnation  ;  but 
the  death  of  Socrates  was  delayed,  by  an  Athenian  usage, 
of  great  antiquity,  said  to  have  been  instituted  in  com- 
memoration of  the  deliverance  of  Attica,  by  Theseus, 
from  the  tyranny  of  Minos.  Every  year,  the  sacred  ship, 
in  which  Theseus  had  sailed  to  Crete,  was  despatched, 
with  offerings,  to  the  sacred  island  of  Delos  ;  and,  in  the 
interim  between  its  departure  and  return,  no  criminals 
were  ever  put  to  death.  Socrates  was  condemned,  the 
evening  before  its  departure,  and,  consequently,  he  was 
respited  until  its  return, — a  period  of  thirty  days.  Dur- 
ng  this  time,  his  friends  had  access  to  him  :  and  the  Di 


DEATH  OF  SOCRATES.  35 

alogues  of  Plato,  entitled  { Criton  and  Phaedon,'  purport  to 
be  the  substance  of  conversations,  held  by  him,  towards 
the  close  of  this  time.  If  he  had  been  willing  to  escape, 
the  gaoler  was  bribed,  and  the  means  of  escape  prepared  ; 
but  this  was  a  breach  of  the  laws,  which  he  refused  to 
countenance  ;  and  he  still  thought,  as  he  had  said  in  his 
speech,  exile  to  be  worse  than  death.  On  the  last  day 
of  his  life,  when  his  friends  were  admitted  at  sunrise,  they 
found  him  with  his  wife  and  one  child.  These  were  soon 
dismissed,  lest  their  lamentations  should  disturb  his  last 
interview  with  his  friends  and  pupils  :  and  he  commenced 
a  conversation,  which  speedily  tuftied  on  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  the  arguments  for  which,  as  they  could  best 
be  developed  by  one  of  the  acntest  of  human  intellects, 
are  summed  up  in  that  celebrated  Dialogue,  the  'Phaedon,' 
which  professes  to  relate  all  the  events  of  this  last  day  of 
the  philosopher's  life.  It  concludes  as  follows  : 

"  When  he  had  thus  spoken,  c  Be  it  so,  Socrates,' 
said  Criton  ;  '  but  what  orders  do  you  leave  to  these  who 
are  present,  or  to  myself,  either  respecting  your  children, 
or  any  thing  else,  in.  the  execution  of  which  we  should 
most  gratify  you  ?'  c  What  I  always  do  say, Criton,  (he 
replied,)  nothing  new  ;  that,  if  you  pay  due  attention  to 
yourselves,  do  what  you  will,  you  will  always  do  what  is 
acceptable  to  myself,  to  my  family,  and  to  your  own  selves, 
though  you  should  not  now  promise  me  any  thing.  But 
if  you  neglect  yourselves,  and  are  unwilling  to  live,  fol- 
lowing the  track,  as  it  were,  of  what  I  have  said,  both  now 
and  heretofore,  you  will  do  nothing  the  more,  though  you 
should  now  promise  many  things,  and  that  with  earnest- 
ness.' '  We  shall  take  care,  therefore,'  said  Criton,  '  so 
to  act.  But  how  would  you  be  buried  ?'  '  Just  as  you 
please,  (said  he,)  if  you  can  but  catch  me,  and  I  do  not 
elude  your  pursuit. '  And,  at  the  same  time,  gently  laugh- 
ing, and  addressing  himself  to  us,  '  I  cannot  persuade 
Criton,'  he  said,  'my  friends,  that  I  am  that  Socrates  who 
now  disputes  with  you,  and  methodizes  every  part  of  the 
discourse  :  but  he  thinks  that  I  am  he  whom  he  will  short- 
ly behold  dead,  and  asks  how  I  ought  to  be  buried.  But 
all  that  long  discourse,  which,  some  time  since,  I  address- 


36  GREAT  EVENTS. 

ed  to  you,  in  which  I  asserted,  that,  after  I  had  drunk 
the  poison,  I  should  no  longer  remain  with  you,  but  should 
depart  to  certain  felicities  of  the  blessed,  this  I  seem  to 
have  declared  to  him  in  vain,  though  it  was  undertaken  to 
console  both  you  and  myself.  Be  surety,  therefore, 
for  me,  to  Criton,  to  the  reverse  of  that,  for  which  he  be- 
came surety  for  me  to  the  judges  ;  for  he  was  my  bail 
that  I  should  remain  ;  but  be  you  my  bail  that  I  shall  not 
remain,  when  I  die,  but  shall  depart  hence,  that  Criton 
may  bear  it  the  more  easily,  and  may  not  be  afflicted,  when 
he  sees  my  body  burnt  or  buried,  as  if  I  were  suffering 
some  dreadful  misfortune  ;  and  that  he  may  not  say,  at 
my  interment,  that  Socrates  is  laid  out,  or  carried  out,  or 
is  buried.  For,  be  well  assured  of  this,  my  friend  Criton, 
that,  when  we  speak  amiss,  we  are  not  only  blamable  as 
to  our  expressions,  but  likewise  do  some  evil  to  our  souls. 
But  it  is  fit  to  be  of  good  heart,  and  to  say,  that  my  body 
will  be  buried,  and  to  bury  it  in  such  manner  as  may  be 
most  pleasing  to  yourself,  and  as  you  may  esteem  it  most 
agreeable  to  our  laws.' 

"  When  he  had  thus  spoken,  he  arose,  and  went  into 
another  room,  that  he  might  wash  himself,  and  Criton  fol- 
lowed him  ;  but  he  ordered  us  to  wait  for  him.  We 
waited,  therefore,  accordingly,  discoursing  over,  and  re- 
viewing, among  ourselves,  what  had  been  said  ;  and  some- 
times speaking  about  his  death,  how  great  a  calamity  it 
would  be  to  us  ;  and  sincerely  thinking,  that  we,  like  those 
who  are  deprived  of  their  fathers,  should  pass  the  rest  of 
our  life  in  the  condition  of  orphans.  But,  when  he  had 
washed  himself,  his  sons  were  brought  to  him,  (for  he  had 
two  little  ones,  and  one  older,)  and  the  women  belonging 
to  his  family  likewise  came  in  to  him :  but,  when  he  had 
spoken  to  them  before  Criton,  and  had  left  them  such  in- 
junctions as  he  thought  proper,  he  ordered  the  boys  and 
women  to  depart,  and  he  himself  returned  to  us.  And  it 
was  now  near  the  setting  of  the  sun  ;  for  he  had  been  away, 
in  the  inner  room,  for  a  long  time.  But,  when  he  came  in 
from  bathing,  he  sat  down,  and  did  not  speak  much, after- 
wards ;  for  then  the  servant  of  the  Eleven*  came  in,  and, 

•Athenian  magistrate,  who  had  the  charge  of  executing  criminals. 


DEATH   OP  SOCRATES.  37 

standing  near  him,  c  I  do  not  perceive  that  in  you,  Soc- 
rates,' said  he,  '  which  I  have  taken  notice  of  in  others  ; 
I  mean,  that  they  are  angry  with  me,  and  curse  me,  when, 
being  compelled  by  the  magistrates,  I  announce  to  them 
that  they  must  drink  the  poison.  But,  on  the  contrary,  I 
have  found  you,  to  the  present  time,  to  be  the  most  gener- 
ous, mild,  and  best, of  all  the  men  that  ever  came  into  this 
place  ;  and,  therefore,  I  am  well  convinced,  that  you  are 
not  angry  with  me,  but  with  the  authors  of  your  present 
condition,  for  you  know  who  they  are.  Now,  therefore, 
(for  you  know  what  I  came  to  tell  yoy,)  farewell  ;  and 
endeavor  to  bear  this  necessity  as  easily  as  possible.' 
And,  at  the  same  time,  bursting  into  tears,  and  turning 
himself  away,  he  departed.  But  Socrates,  looking  after 
him,  said,  '  And  thou,  too,  farewell  ;  and  we  shall  take 
care  to  act  as  you  advise.'  And,  at  the  same  time,  turn- 
ing to  us,  '  How  courteous,'  he  said,  '  is  the  behavior 
of  that  man  !  During  the  whole  time  of  my  abode  here, 
he  has  visited  me,  and  often  conversed  with  me,  and 
proved  himself  to  be  the  best  of  men  ;  and  now,  how  gen- 
erously he  weeps  on  my  account  !  But  let  us  obey  him, 
Criton,  and  let  some  one  bring  the  poison,  if  it  is  bruised  ; 
and  if  not,  let  the  man, whose  business  it  is,  bruise  it.' 
'  But,  Socrates,'  said  Criton,  1 1  think  that  the  sun  still 
hangs  over  the  mountains,  and  is  not  set  yet.  And,  at  the 
same  time,  I  have  known  others,  who  have  drunk  the 
poison  very  late,  after  it  was  announced  to  them  ;  who 
have  supped  and  drank  abundantly.  Therefore,  do  not 
be  in  such  haste,  for  there  is  yet  time  enough.'  Socra- 
tes replied,  c  Such  men,  Criton,  act  fitly  in  the  manner 
which  you  have  described,  for  they  think  to  derive  some 
advantage  by  so  doing  ;  and  I,  also,  with  propriety,  shall 
not  act  in  this  manner.  For  I  do  not  think  I  shall  gain 
any  thing,  by  drinking  it  later,  except  becoming  ridiculous 
to  myself,  through  desiring  to  live,  and  being  sparing  of 
life,  when  nothing  of  it  any  longer  remains.  Go,  there- 
fore,' said  he,  c  be  persuaded,  and  comply  with  my  re- 
quest.' 

"  Then  Criton,  hearing  this,  gave  a  sign  to  the  boy  that 
stood  near  him  ;  and  the  boy  departing,  and  having  staid 
4  6.  E. 


38  GREAT  EVENTS. 

for  some  time,  came  back  with  the  person  that  was  to  ad- 
minister the  poison,  who  brought  it,  pounded  in  a  cup. 
And  Socrates,  looking  at  the  man,  said,  '  Well,  my 
friend,  (for  you  are  knowing  in  these  matters,)  what  is  to 
be  done  ?'  '  Nothing,'  he  said,  '  but,  after  you  have  drunk 
it,  to  walk  about,  until  a  heaviness  takes  place  in  your 
legs,  and  then  to  lie  down  :  this  is  the  manner  in  which 
you  have  to  act.'  And,  at  the  same  time,  he  extended 
the  cup  to  Socrates.  And  Socrates,  taking  it,  and,  indeed, 
Echecrates,  with  great  cheerfulness,  neither  trembling, 
nor  suffering  any.  change  for  the  worse  in  his  color  or 
countenance,  but,  as  he  was  used  to  do,  looking  up  stern- 
ly at  the  man — 'What  say  you,'  he  said,  'as  to  mak- 
ing a  libation  from  this  potion  ?  may  I  do  it  or  not  ?' 
'We  only  bruise  as  much,  Socrates,'  he  said,  'as  we 
think  sufficient  for  the  purpose.'  'I  understand  you,' 
he  said  ;  c  but  it  is  both  lawful  and  proper  to  pray  to  the 
gods,  that  my  departure  hence,  thither,  may  be  prosper- 
ous ;  which  I  entreat  them  to  grant  may  be  the  case.' 
And,  so  saying,  he  stopped,  and  drank  the  poison  very 
readily  and  pleasantly.  And  thus  far,  indeed,  the  greater 
part  of  us  were  tolerably  well  able  to  refrain  from  weep- 
ing ;  but,  when  we  saw  him  drinking,  and  that  he  had 
drunk  it,  we  could  no  longer  restrain  our  tears.  And 
from  me,  indeed,  in  spite  of  my  efforts,  they  flowed,  and 
not  drop  by  drop  ;  so  that,  wrapping  myself  in  my  man- 
tle, I  bewailed  myself,  not,  indeed,  for  his  misfortune,  but 
for  my  own,  considering  what  a  companion  I  should  be 
deprived  of.  But  Criton,  who  was  not  able  to  restrain 
his  tears,  was  compelled  to  rise  before  me.  And  Apol- 
lodorus,  who,  during  the  whole  time,  prior  to  this,  had  not 
ceased  from  weeping,  then  wept  aloud,  with  great  bitter- 
ness, so  that  he  infected  all  who  were  present,  except 
Socrates.  But  Socrates,  upon  seeing  this,  exclaimed, 
c  What  are  you  doing,  you  strange  men  !  In  truth,  I  prin- 
cipally sent  away  the  women,  lest  they  should  produce  a 
disturbance  of  this  kind  ;  for  I  have  heard,  that  it  is  proper 
to  die  among  well-omened  sounds.  Be  quiet,  therefore, 
and  maintain  your  fortitude.'  And  when  we  heard  this, 
tve  were  ashamed,  and  restrained  our  tears.  But  he, 


DEATH   OP  SOCRATES.  39 

when  he  found,  during  his  walking  about,  that  his  legs  be- 
came heavy,  an  1  had  told  us  so,  laid  himself  down  on  his 
back.  For  the  man  had  told  him  to  do  so.  And,  at  the 
same  time, he  who  gave  him  the  poison,  touching  him  at  in- 
tervals, examined  his  feet  and  legs.  And  then,  pressing 
very  hard  on  his  foot,  he  asked  him  if  he  felt  it.  But 
Socrates  answered,  that  he  did  not.  And,  after  this,  he 
pressed  his  thighs,  and  thus,  going  upwards,  he  showed 
us  that  he  was  cold  and  stiff.  And  Socrates  also  touched 
himself,  and  said,  that  when  the  poison  reached  his  heart, 
he  should  then  depart.  But  now,  the  Jower  part  of  his 
body  was  almost  cold  ;  when,  uncovering  himself,  (for 
he  was  covered,)  he  said,  (and  these  were  his  last  words,) 
c  Criton,  we  owe  a  cock  to  jEsculapius.  Discharge  this 
debt,  therefore,  for  me,  and  do  not  neglect  it.'  c  It  shall 
be  done,'  said  Criton  ;  c  but  consider,  whether  you  have 
any  other  commands.'  To  this  inquiry  of  Criton,  he 
made  no  reply  ;  but,  shortly  after,  moved  himself,  and  the 
man  uncovered  him.  And  Socrates  fixed  his  eyes  ; 
which,  when  Criton  perceived,  he  closed  his  mouth  and 
eyes.  This,  Echecrates,  was  the  end  of  our  compan- 
ion ;  a  man,  as  it  appears  to  me,  the  best  of  those  whom 
we  were  acquainted  with  at  that  time,  and,  besides  this, 
the  most  prudent  and  just."* 

*  Taylor's  translation  of  Plato.  Some  slight  alterations  have  been 
made,  where  the  translator  seemed  to  have  gone  unnecessarily  far  from 
the  language  of  he  original.  —  Note  of  the  English  author. 


40  GREAT  EVENTS. 


THE  SURRENDER  OF  THE  ROMAN  ARMY,  AT 
THE  DEFILE  NEAR  CAUDIUM,  B.  C.  319. 

BY  LIVY. 

THE  three  most  prominent  early  Italian  nations  were 
the  Etruscans,  the  Latins,  and  the  people  of  Samnium. 
The  last-named  country  consisted  of  a  mountain  tract,  in 
the  southeastern  part  of  central  Italy,  and  its  inhabitants 
were  renowned  for  their  frugality,  industry,  and  bravery. 
All  of  them  cultivated  the  soil  ;  and  the  institution  of  an 
agricultural  priesthood,  (fratres  arvales,*}  was  borrowed 
by  the  Romans  from  the  Samnites.  They,  like  the  Latins 
and  Tuscans,  formed  a  league,  or  confederacy,  of  several 
communities,  otherwise  independent.  The  Romans,  at  an 
early  period,  came  in  contact  with  these  warlike  mountain- 
eers. The  Samnites  had  attacked  Capua,  the  wealthy  cap- 
ital of  Campania  ;  and,  when  the  inhabitants  of  this  city 
saw  that  they  were  not  strong  enough  to  defend  it,  they 
offered  themselves  as  subjects  to  the  republic  of  Rome,  so 
that  Rome  should  feel  obliged  to  defend  Capua,  as  its  own. 
The  Romans  accepted  the  offer,  and  were  successful  in  the 
ensuing  war  against  the  Samnites.  Peace  was  concluded  ; 
but,  after  it  had  subsisted  for  some  time,  war  was  renewed, 
and  lasted  many  years.  During  its  continuance,  the  Ro- 
man legions  were  made  prisoners  by  the  Samnites,  who 
granted  them  permission  to  depart,  upon  very  humiliating 
conditions.  It  is  the  description  of  this  part  of  the  war 
which  has  been  selected  as  an  extract  from  Livy,  in  whose 
history  it  is  found,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Ninth  Book. 
A  few  brief  remarks  respecting  Livy  will  be  found,  preced- 
ing the  next  article. 

*  The  order  o£  priests  who  went  in  procession  through  the  fields, 
and  prayed  for  the  increase  of  corn,  at  the  festival  called  Ambnrvalia, 
when  the  fields  were  dedicated  and  blessed.  Those  priests  were 
twelve  in  number,  and  the  order  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Romulus,  in  honor  of  his  nurse,  Acca  Laurent i;i.  \vlio  IKK!  twelve  sons, 
and  when  one  of  them  died,  Romulus,  to  console  her,  offered  to  sup- 
ply his  place,  and  called  himself  and  the  rest  of  her  sons  fratres  ar 
vales. — I. 


SURRENDER  OP  THE  ROMANS,  NEAR  CAUDIUM.  41 

THE  year,  following,  [A.  U.  C.  433,  B.  C.  319,]  was 
distinguished  by  the  convention  of  Caudium,  so  memora- 
ble, on  account  of  the  misfortune  of  the  Romans.  The 
consuls  of  the  year  were  Titus  Veturius  Calvinus  and 
Spurius  Postumius. 

The  Samnites  were  that  year  commanded  by  Gains 
Pontius,  son  to  Herennius,  born  of  a  father  most  highly 
renowned  for  wisdom,  and  himself  a  consummate  warrior 
and  commander.  When  the  ambassadors,*  who  had 
been  sent  to  offer  restitution,  returned,  without  conclud- 
ing a  peace,  he  said,  in  an  assembly  : 

"  That  you  may  not  think  that  no  purpose  has  been 
effected  by  this  embassy,  be  assured,  that,  whatever  de- 
gree of  anger  the  deities  of  heaven  had  conceived  against 
us,  on  account  of  the  infraction  of  the  treaty,  has  been 
hereby  expiated.  I  am  very  confident,  that,  whatever 
deities  they  were,  whose  will  it  was  that  you  should  be 
reduced  to  the  necessity  of  making  restitution,  it  was  not 
agreeable  to  them,  that  our  atonement  for  the  breach  of 
treaty  should  be  so  haughtily  spurned  by  the  Romans  : 
for,  what  more  could  possibly  be  done,  towards  appeas- 
ing the  gods  and  softening  the  anger  of  man,  than  we 
have  done  ?  The  effects  of  the  enemy,  taken  among 
the  spoils,  which  appeared  to  be  our  own,  by  the  right 
of  war,  we  restored  ;  the  authors  of  the  war,  as  we  could 
not  deliver  them  up,  alive,  we  delivered  to  them,  dead  ; 
their  goods  we  carried  to  Rome,  lest,  by  retaining  them, 
any  degree  of  guilt  should  remain  among  us.  What  more, 
Roman,  do  I  owe  to  thee  ?  what,  to  the  treaty  ?  what,  to 
the  gods,  the  guarantees  of  the  treaty  ?  What  umpire 
shall  I  call  in,  to  judge  of  your  resentment,  and  of  my 
punishment  ?  I  decline  none  ;  neither  nation  nor  private 
persons. 

"  But,  if  the  weak  is  not  to  find  protection  against  a 
stronger,  in  human  laws,  I  will  appeal  to  the  gods,  the 
avengers  of  intolerable  arrogance,  and  will  beseech  them, 
to  turn  their  wrath  against  those,  who  are  not  satisfied  by 
the  restoration  of  their  own,  nor  by  additional  heaps  of 

*  That  is,  the  Samnite  ambassadors. 
4* 


42  GREAT  EVENTS. 

other  men's  property  ;  whose  inhuman  rage  is  not  satiated 
by  the  death  of  the  guilty,  by  the  surrender  of  their  lifeless 
bodies,  and  by  their  goods,  accompanying  the  surrender 
of  the  owner  ;  who  cannot  be  appeased,  otherwise  than 
by  giving  them  our  blood  to  drink,  and  our  entrails  to  be 
torn. 

"  Samnites  !  war  is  just,  when  it  becomes  necessary  ; 
and  arms  are  clear  of  impiety,  when  men  have  no  hope 
left  but  in  arms.  Wherefore,  as  the  issue  of  every  hu- 
man undertaking  depends,  chiefly,  on  men's  acting  ei- 
ther with  or  without  the  favor  of  the  gods,  be  assured, 
that  the  former  wars  you  waged  in  opposition  to  the  gods,N 
more  than  to  men  ;  in  this,  which  we  are  now  to  under- 
take, you  will  act  under  the  immediate  guidance  of  the 
gods  themselves." 

After  uttering  these  predictions,  not  more  favorable  than 
true,  he  led  out  the  troops,  and  placed  his  camp  about 
Caudium,  as  much  out  of  view,  as  possible.  Thence,  he 
sent  to  Calatia,  where  he  heard  that  the  Roman  consuls 
were  encamped,  ten  soldiers,  in  the  habit  of  shepherds, 
and  ordered  them  to  keep  some  cattle  feeding,  in  several 
different  places,  at  a  small  distance  from  the  Roman 
posts  ;  and  that,  when  they  fell  in  with  any  of  their  for- 
agers, they  should  all  agree  in  the  same  story,  that  the 
legions  of  the  Samnites  were  then  in  Apulia,  besieging 
Luceria,  with  their  whole  force,  and  very  near  becoming 
masters  of  it.  Such  a  rumor  had  been  industriously 
spread,  before,  and  had  already  reached  the  Romans  ; 
but  these  prisoners  caused  them  to  give  it  greater  credit, 
especially,  as  they  all  concurred  in  the  same  report.  The 
Romans  did  not  hesitate  to  resolve  on  carrying  succor 
to  the  Lucernians,  because  they  were  good  and  faithful 
allies  ;  and  for  this  further  reason,  lest  all  Apulia,  through 
apprehension  of  the  impending  danger,  might  go  over  to 
the  enemy. 

The  only  point  which  came  under  deliberation  was, 
by  what  road  they  should  go.  There  were  two  roads 
leading  to  Luceria,  one  along  the  coast  of  the  upper 
sea,  wide  and  open  ;  but,  as  it  was  the  safer,  so  it  was 
proportionably  longer  :  the  other,  which  was  shorter, 


SURRENDER  OF  THE  ROMANS,  NEAR  CAUDIUM.  43 

through  the  Caudine  forks.  The  nature  of  the  place  is 
this  :  there  are  two  deep  glens,  narrow,  and  covered  with 
wood,  connected  together  by  mountains,  ranging  on  both 
sides,  from  one  to  the  other  :  between  these,  lies  a  plain, 
of  considerable  extent,  abounding  in  grass  and  water, 
through  the  middle  of  which  the  passage  runs  ;  but,  be- 
fore this  is  arrived  at,  the  first  defile  must  be  passed, 
while  the  only  way  back  is  through  the  road  by  which  it 
wTas  entered  ;  or,  in  case  of  resolving  to  proceed  forward, 
it  must  be  by  the  other  glen,  which  is  still  more  narrow 
and  difficult. 

Into  this  plain,  the  Romans  marched  down  their  troops, 
by  one  of  those  passes  through  the  cleft  of  a  rock  ; 
and,  when  they  advanced  to  the  other  defile,  found  it 
blocked  up,  by  trees  thrown  across,  with  a  mound  of 
huge  stones.  The  stratagem  of  the  enemy  now  became 
ipparent ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  body  of  troops  was 
.seen  on  the  eminence,  over  the  glen.  Hastening  back, 
(hen,  to  the  road  by  which  they  had  entered,  they  found 
that  also  shut  up,  by  such  another  fence  and  men  in 
arms.  Then,  without  orders,  they  halted  ;  amazement 
took  possession  of  their  minds,  and  a  strange  kind  of 
numbness,  their  limbs.  They  then  remained,  a  long 
time,  motionless  and  silent,  with  their  eyes  fixed  on  each 
other,  as  if  each  thought  the  other  more  capable  of  judg- 
ing and  advising,  than  himself.  After  some  time,  the 
consul's  pavilions  were  erected,  and  they  got  ready  the 
implements  for  throwing  up  works,  although  they  were 
sensible  that  it  must  appear  ridiculous,  to  attempt  to  raise 
a  fortification  in  their  present  desperate  condition,  and 
when  almost  every  hope  was  lost.  Yet,  not  to  add  a 
fault  to  their  misfortunes,  they  all,  without  being  advised 
or  ordered  by  any  one,  set  earnestly  to  work,  and  enclos- 
ed a  camp  with  a  rampart,  close  to  the  water,  while 
themselves,  besides  enduring  the  haughty  taunts  of  their 
enemies,  seemed  with  melancholy  to  acknowledge  the 
apparent  fruitlessness  of  their  labor.  The  lieutenant- 
generals  and  tribunes,  without  being  summoned  to  con- 
sultation, (fbr  there  was  no  room  for  either  consultation 
or  remedy,)  assembled  round  the  dejected  consul ;  while 


44  GREAT  EVENTS. 

the  soldiers,  crowding  to  the  general's  quarters,  demand- 
ed from  their  leaders  that  succor,  which  it  was  hardly  in 
the  power  of  the  immortal  gods,  themselves,  to  afford 
them. 

Night  came  on,  while  they  were  employed  in  lament- 
ing their  situation,  all  urging,  with  warmth,  whatever  their 
several  tempers  prompted.  Some  crying  out,  "  Let  us 
go  over  those  fences,  which  obstruct  the  roads  ;"  others, 
ct  over  the  steeps  ;  through  the  woods  ;  any  way,  where 
arms  can  be  carried.  Let  us  be  but  permitted  to  come 
to  the  enemy,  whom  we  have  been  used  to  conquer,  now, 
near  thirty  years.  All  places  will  be  level  and  plain 
to  a  Roman,  fighting  against  the  perfidious  Samnite." 
Another  would  say,  "  Whither,  or  by  what  way,  can  we 
go  ?  Do  we  expect  to  remove  the  mountains  from 
their  foundations  ?  While  these  cliffs  hang  over  us, 
how  can  we  proceed  ?  Whether  armed  or  unarmed, 
brave  or  dastardly,  we  are  all,  without  distinction,  cap- 
tured and  vanquished.  The  enemy  will  not  even  show 
us  a  weapon,  by  which  we  might  die,  with  honor.  He 
will  finish  the  war,  without  moving  from  his  seat."  In 
such  discourse,  thinking  of  neither  food  nor  rest,  they 
passed  the  whole  night. 

Nor  could  the  Samnites,  though  in  circumstances  so 
accordant  to  their  wishes,  instantly  determine  how  to 
act :  it  was  therefore  universally  agreed,  that  Herennius 
Pontius,  father  of  the  general,  should  be  consulted,  by 
letter.  He  was  now  grown  feeble,  through  age,  and 
had  withdrawn  himself,  not  only  from  all  military,  but 
also  from  all  civil,  occupations  ;  yet,  notwithstanding  the 
decline  of  his  bodily  strength,  his  mind  retained  its  full 
vigor.  When  he  was  informed  that  the  Roman  armies 
were  shut  up  at  the  Caudine  forks,  between  the  two 
glens,  and  was  asked  for  advice,  by  his  son's  messenger, 
he  gave  his  opinion,1  that  they  should  all  be  immediately 
dismissed  thence,  unhurt.  On  this  counsel  being  reject- 
ed, and  the  same  messenger  returning,  to  advise  with 
him,  a  second  time,  he  recommended  that  they  should 
all,  to  a  man,  be  put  to  death.  On  receiving  these  an- 
swers, so  opposite  to  each  other,  like  the  ambiguous  re- 


SURRENDER  OF  THE  ROMANS,  NEAR  CAUDIUM.  45 

sponses  of  an  oracle,  his  son,  although,  as  well  as  oth- 
ers, persuaded  that  the  powers  of  his  father's  mind,  to- 
gether with  those  of  his  body,  had  been  impaired  by  age, 
was  yet  prevailed  on,  by  the  general  desire  of  all,  to  send 
for  him  and  consult  him  in  person. 

The  old  man,  we  are  told,  complied,  without  reluc- 
tance, and  was  carried  in  a  wagon  to  the  camp,  where, 
when  he  came  to  speak,  he  made  no  alteration  in  the  opin- 
ions which  he  had  given  :  he  only  added  the  reasons  on 
which  he  founded  them :  That,  "  by  his  first  plan,  which 
he  esteemed  the  best,  he  meant,  by  an  act  of  extraordinary 
kindness,  to  establish  perpetual  peace  and  friendship  with  a 
most  powerful  nation  ;  by  the  other,  to  put  off  the  return 
of  war,  to  the  distance  of  many  ages,  during  which,  the 
Roman  state,  after  the  loss  of  those  two  armies,  could  not 
easily  recover  its  strength.  A  third  plan  there  was  not." 
His  son,  and  the  other  chiefs,  then  asking  him  if  "  a  plan 
of  a  middle  kind  might  not  be  adopted, — of  dismissing 
them,  unhurt ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  by  the  right  of  war, 
imposing  terms  on  them,  as  vanquished  ?" — "  That,  in- 
deed," said  he,  "  is  a  plan  of  such  a  nature,  as  neither 
procures  friends  nor  removes  enemies.  Only  consider 
who  they  are,  whom  you  would  irritate  by  ignominious 
treatment.  The  Romans  are  a  race  who  know  not  how 
to  sit  down  quiet,  under  defeat  ;  any  scar,  which  the 
present  necessity  shall  imprint  in  their  breasts,  will  ran- 
kle there,  for  ever,  and  will  not  suffer  them  to  rest,  until 
they  have  wreaked  manifold  vengeance  on  your  heads." 
Neither  of  these  plans  was  approved,  and  Herennius  was 
carried  home. 

In  the  other  camp,  the  Romans,  having  made  many 
fruitless  efforts  to  force  a  passage,  and  being  now  desti- 
tute of  every  means  of  subsistence,  were  reduced,  by 
necessity,  to  send  ambassadors,  who  were,  first,  to  ask 
peace,  on  equal  terms  ;  which,  if  they  did  not  obtain, 
they  were  to  challenge  the  enemy  to  battle.  To  this, 
Pontius  answered,  "that  the  war  was  at  an  end;  and 
since,  even  in  their  present  vanquished  and  captive  state, 
they  were  not  willing  to  make  acknowledgement  of  their 
situation,  he  would  send  them  under  the  yoke,  unarmed, 


46  GREAT  EVENTS. 

and  only  partly  clothed  :  that  the  other  conditions  of 
peace  should  be  such  as  were  just  and  proper,  between 
the  conquerors  and  the  conquered.  Their  troops  must 
depart,  and  their  colonies  be  withdrawn,  out  of  the  terri- 
tories of  the  Samnites  ;  and,  for  the  future,  the  Romans 
and  Samnites,  under  a  treaty  of  equality,  shall  live  ac- 
cording to  their  own  respective  laws.  On  these  terms, 
he  was  ready  to  negotiate  with  the  consuls  ;  and,  if  any 
of  these  should  not  be  accepted,  he  forbade  the  ambas- 
sadors to  come  to  him,  again." 

When  the  result  of  this  embassy  was  made  known, 
such  general  lamentation  suddenly  arose,  and  such  mel- 
ancholy took  possession  of  every  mind,  that,  had  they 
been  told  that  all  were  to  die  on  the  spot,  they  could  not 
have  felt  deeper  affliction.  Silence  continued  a  long 
time,  the  consuls  not  being  able  to  utter  a  word,  either  in 
favor  of  a  treaty  so  disgraceful,  or  against  a  treaty  so 
necessary. 

At  length,  Lucius  Lentulus,  who  was  the  first  among  the 
lieutenant-generals,  both  in  respect  of  bravery  and  of  the 
public  honors  which  he  had  attained,  addressed  them,  thus: 
"  Consuls,  I  have  often  heard  my  father  say,  that  he  was 
the  only  person  in  the  capitol  who  did  not  advise  the  senate 
to  ransom  the  state  from  the  Gauls,  with  gold  :  and  this 
he  would  not  concur  in,  because  they  had  not  been  en- 
closed with  a  trench  and  rampart,  by  the  enemy,  (who 
were  remarkably  slothful,  with  respect  to  works  and  rais- 
ing fortifications,)  and  because  they  might  sally  forth,  if 
not  without  great  danger,  yet  without  certain  destruction. 
Now,  if,  in  like  manner,  as  they  had  it  in  their  power  to 
run  down  from  the  capitol,  in  arms,  against  their  foe,  as 
men  besieged  have  often  sallied  out  on  their  besiegers,  it 
were  possible  for  us  to  come  to  blows,  either  on  equal 
or  unequal  ground,  the  advice  which  I  should  give  would 
not  be  devoid  of  the  same  spirit  which  animated  my 
father. 

"  I  acknowledge,  indeed,  that  death,  in  defence  of  our 
country,  is  highly  glorious  ;  and  I  am  ready,  either  to 
devote  myself  for  the  ]?<>m;m  people  and  the  legions, 
or  to  plunge  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy.  But,  in  this 


SURRENDER  OP  THE  ROMANS,  NEAR  CAUDIUM.  47 

spot,  I  behold  my  country  ;  in  this  spot,  the  whole  of 
the  Roman  legions  ;  and,  unless  these  choose  to  rush  on 
death,  for  their  own  gratification,  what  is  there  which  can 
be  preserved  by  their  death  ?  The  houses  of  the  city, 
some  may  say,  and  the  walls  of  it,  and  the  crowd  who 
dwell  in  it.  But,  in  fact,  in  case  of  the  destruction  of 
this  army,  all  these  are  given  up  to  ruin,  instead  of  being 
saved  from  it  :  for  who  will  protect  them  ?  An  unwar- 
like  and  unarmed  multitude,  shall  I  suppose  ?  Yes  ; 
just  as  they  defended  them  against  the  attack  of  the 
Gauls.  Will  they  call  to  their  succor  an  army  from 
Veii,  with  Camillus  at  its  head  ?  Here,  on  the  spot,  I 
repeat,  are  all  our  hopes  and  strength  ;  by  preserving 
which,  we  preserve  our  country  ;  by  delivering  them  up 
to  death,  we  abandon  and  betray  it.  But  a  surrender  is 
shameful  and  ignominious.  True  :  but  such  ought  to  be 
our  affection  for  our  country,  that  we  should  save  it,  by 
our  own  disgrace,  if  necessity  required,  as  freely  as  by 
our  death.  Let  us  therefore  undergo  that  indignity,  how 
great  soever,  and  submit  to  that  necessity,  to  which  even 
the  gods,  themselves,  are  seen  to  yield.  Go,  consuls  ; 
ransom  the  state  for  arms,  which  your  ancestors  ransom 
ed  with  gold." 

The  consuls  accordingly  went  to  Pontius,  to  confei 
with  him  ;  and,  when  he  talked,  in  the  strain  of  a  con- 
queror, of  a  treaty,  they  declared  that  such  could  not  be 
concluded,  without  an  order  of  the  people,  nor  without 
the  ministry  of  the  heralds,  and  the  other  customary  rites. 
So  that  the  Caudine  peace  was  not  ratified  by  settled 
treaty,  as  is  commonly  believed,  and  even  asserted  by 
Claudius,  in  his  history,  but  by  convention,  wherein  the 
parties  became  sureties.  For  what  occasion  would  there 
be,  either  for  sureties  or  hostages,  in  the  former  case, 
where  the  ratification  is  performed  by  the  imprecation, 
u  that,  whichever  nation  shall  give  occasion  to  the  said 
terms  being  violated,  may  Jupiter  strike  that  nation,  in 
like  manner  as  the  swine  is  struck  by  the  heralds." 
The  consuls,  lieutenant-generals,  quaestors,  and  military 
tribunes,  became  sureties  ;  and  the  names  of  all  these  are 
extant  in  the  convention  ;  where,  had  the  business  been 


48  GREAT  EVENTS. 

transacted  by  treaty,  none  would  have  appeared,  but  those 
of  the  two  heralds. 

On  account  of  the  necessary  delay,  before  a  peace 
could  be  concluded,  it  was  also  insisted  on,  that  six 
hundred  horsemen  should  be  given,  as  hostages,  who 
were  to  suffer  death,  if  the  compact  were  not  fulfilled. 
A  time  was  then  fixed  for  delivering  up  the  hostages,  and 
sending  away  the  troops,  disarmed.  The  return  of  the 
consuls  renewed  the  general  grief,  in  the  camp ;  inso- 
much, that  the  men  hardly  refrained  from  offering  vio- 
lence to  them  ;  "  by  whose  rashness,"  they  said,  "  they 
had  been  brought  into  such  a  situation  ;  and  through 
whose  cowardice  they  were  likely  to  depart,  with  greater 
disgrace  than  they  came.  They  had  employed  no  guide 
who  knew  the  country,  nor  scouts  to  explore  it ;  but 
went  on,  blindly,  like  beasts  into  a  pitfall."  They  cast 
looks  of  distraction  on  each  other  ;  viewed,  earnestly,  the 
arms  which  they  must  presently  surrender  ;  while  their 
persons  would  be  subject  to  the  will  of  the  enemy  ;  fig- 
ured to  themselves  the  hostile  yoke,  the  scoffs  of  the 
conquerors,  their  haughty  looks,  and,  finally,  thus  dis- 
armed, their  march  through  the  midst  of  an  armed  foe. 
In  a  word,  they  saw,  with  horror,  tho  miserable  journey 
of  their  dishonored  band,  through  the  cities  of  the  allies  ; 
and  their  return  into  their  own  country,  to  their  parents, 
whither  themselves  and  their  ancestors  had  so  often  come, 
in  triumph :  observing,  that  "they,  alone,  had  been 
conquered  without  a  fight,  without  a  weapon  thrown, 
without  a  wound  ;  that  they  had  not  been  permitted  to 
draw  their  swords  against  the  enemy.  In  vain  had 
arms,  in  vain  had  strength,  in  vain  had  courage,  been 
given  them." 

While  they  were  giving  vent  to  such  grievous  reflec- 
tions, the  fatal  hour  of  their  disgrace  arrived,  which  was  to 
render  every  circumstance  still  more  shocking,  in  fact,  than 
they  had  preconceived  it,  in  their  imaginations.  First, 
they  were  ordered  to  go  out,  beyond  the  rampart,  un- 
armed, and  with  single  garments  ;  then  tin;  hostages  were 
surrendered,  and  carried  into  custody  :  the  lictors  were 
next  commanded  to  depart  from  the  consuls,  and  the 


SURRENDER  OF  THE  ROMANS,  NEAR  CAUDIUM.  49 

robes  of  the  latter  were  stripped  off.  This  excited  such 
i  degree  of  commiseration,  in  the  breasts  of  those  very 
men,  who,  a  little  before,  were  pouring  execrations  on 
them,  that  every  one,  forgetting  his  own  condition,  turned 
away  his  eyes  from  that  disgraceful  insult  on  so  high  a 
dignity,  as  from  a  spectacle  too  horrid  to  behold. 

First,  the  consuls,  nearly  half  naked,  were  sent  under 
the  yoke  ;  then,  each  officer,  according  to  his  rank,  was 
exposed  to  disgrace  ;  and  the  same  of  the  legions,  suc- 
cessively. The  enemy  stood  on  each  side,  under  arms, 
reviling  and  mocking  them  ;  swords  were  pointed  at  most 
of  them  ;  several  were  wounded,  and  some  even  slain, 
when  their  looks,  rendered  too  fierce  by  the  indignity  to 
which  they  were  subjected,  gave  offence  to  the  conquer- 
ors. Thus,  they  were  led  under  the  yoke  ;  and,  what 
was  still  more  intolerable,  under  the  eyes  of  the  enemy. 

When  they  were  clear  of  the  defile,  they  seemed  as 
if  they  had  been  drawn  up  from  the  infernal  regions,  and 
then,  for  the  first  time,  beheld  the  light ;  yet,  when  they 
viewed  the  ignominious  appearance,  to  which  the  army 
was  reduced,  the  light  itself  was  more  painful  to  them, 
than  any  kind  of  death  could  have  been  ;  so  that,  although 
they  might  have  arrived  at  Capua,  before  night,  yet,  doubt- 
ing the  fidelity  of  the  allies,  and  embarrassed  by  shame, 
they  halted  at  a  small  distance  from  that  city.  They 
stood  in  need  of  every  kind  of  refreshment,  yet  threw 
themselves  carelessly  on  the  ground,  on  each  side  of  the 
road ;  which,  being  told  at  Capua,  compassion  for  the 
situation  of  their  allies  took  place  of  the  arrogance  natural 
to  the  Campanians.  They  immediately  sent  to  the  con- 
suls their  ensigns  of  office,  the  fasces  and  lictors  ;  to  the 
soldiers,  arms,  horses,  clothes,  and  provisions,  in  abun- 
dance ;  and,  on  their  approach,  the  whole  senate  and 
people  went  out  to  meet  them,  and  performed  every  prop- 
er office  of  hospitality,  both  public  and  private.  But  the 
looks  and  address  of  the  allies,  joined  with  all  their  kind- 
ness, could  not  draw  a  word  from  them,  nor  even  pre- 
vail on  them  to  raise  their  eyes.  So  deeply  were  they 
affected,  by  shame  and  grief,  that  they  shunned  the  con- 
versation of  these,  their  friends. 

5  G.    E 


50  GREAT    EVENTS. 

Next  day,  when  some  young  nobles,  who  had  been 
sent  from  Capua,  to  escort  them  on  their  road  to  the 
frontiers  of  Campania,  returned,  they  were  called  into 
the  senate-house,  and,  in  answer  to  the  inquiries  of  the 
elder  members,  said,  that  "  to  them  they  seemed  deep- 
ly sunk  in  melancholy  and  dejection  ;  that  the  whole 
body  moved  on,  in  silence,  almost  as  if  they  were  dumb  ; 
that  the  former  genius  of  the  Romans  was  struck  muto  ; 
and  their  spirit  had  been  taken  from  them,  together  with 
their  arms.  Not  one  gave  answer  to  those  who  saluted 
them  ;  as  if,  through  fear,  they  were  unable  to  utter  a 
word  ;  and  as  if  their  necks  still  carried  the  yoke  under 
which  they  had  been  sent.  That  the  Samnites  had  ob- 
tained a  victory,  not  only  glorious  but  lasting  ;  for  they 
had  subdued,  not  Rome,  merely,  as  the  Gauls  had  form- 
erly done,  but,  what  was  a  much  more  warlike  achieve- 
ment, the  Roman  courage."  These  discourses  were 
attentively  listened  to,  and  lamentations  made,  in  this 
assembly  of  faithful  allies,  as  if  the  Roman  name  were 
almost  extinct. 

We  are  told  that  Ofilius  Calavius,  son  of  Ovius,  a  mar. 
highly  distinguished,  both  by  his  birth  and  conduct,  and  at 
this  time  further  respectable,  on  account  of  his  age,  de- 
clared, that  he  entertained  a  very  different  opinion  in 
ths  case.  "  This  obstinate  silence,"  said  he  ;  "  those 
ears,  deaf  to  all  comfort ;  those  eyes,  fixed  on  the  earth, 
with  the  shame  of  beholding  the  light  ;  are  indications  of 
a  mind  calling  forth,  from  its  inmost  recesses,  the  utmost 
exertions  of  resentment.  Either  he  was  ignorant  of  the 
temper  of  the  Romans,  or  that  silence  would  shortly  ex- 
cite, among  the  Samnites,  lamentable  cries  and  groans ; 
for  that  the  remembrance  of  the  Caudine  peace  would  be 
much  more  sorrowful  to  the  Samnites  than  to  the  Ro- 
mans. Each  side  would  have  their  own  native  spirit, 
wherever  they  should  happen  to  engage  ;  but  the  Sam- 
nites would  not,  every  where,  have  the  glens  of  Cau- 
rlitim." 

People  at  Rome  were,  by  this  time,  informed  of  the 
disaster  which  had  biTalli.-ii  them.  At  first,  they  heard 
that  the  troops  were  shut  up  ;  afterward,  the  news  of  the 


SURRENDER  OF  THE  ROMANS,  NEAR  CAUDIUM.  51 

\gnominious  peace  arrived  ;  and  this  caused  greater  afflic- 
tion than  had  been  felt  for  their  danger.  On  the  report 
of  their  being  surrounded,  a  levy  of  men  was  begun  ;  but, 
when  it  was  understood  that  the  army  had  surrendered, 
in  so  disgraceful  a  manner,  the  preparations  were  laid 
aside,  and  immediately,  without  any  public  directions,  a 
general  mourning  took  place,  with  all  various  demonstra- 
tions of  grief.  The  shops  were  shut ;  and  all  business 
ceased  in  the  forum,  by  common  consent,  without  any 
order  for  that  purpose  being  issued.  Ornamented  dress- 
es* were  laid  aside  ;  and  the  public  were  in  greater 
tribulation,  if  possible,  than  the  vanquished,  themselves  ; 
they  were  not  only  enraged  against  the  commanders, 
the  advisers  and  sureties  of  the  peace,  but  were  filled 
with  detestation  even  of  the  unoffending  soldiers,  and 
asserted,  that  they  ought  not  to  be  admitted  into  the 
city. 

But  these  transports  of  passion  were  allayed  by  the  ar- 
rival of  the  troops,  in  a  state  so  deplorable,  as  was  suffi- 
cient to  convert  even  anger  into  compassion  ;  for  they  came 
into  the  city,  not  like  men  returning  into  their  country,  with 
unexpected  safety,  but  in  the  habit  and  with  the  looks  of 
captives,  late  in  the  evening  ;  and  they  hid  themselves, 
so  closely,  in  their  houses,  that,  for  the  next  and  several 
following  days,  not  one  of  them  could  bear  to  come  in 
sight  of  the  forum  or  of  the  public.  The  consuls,  shut 
..up  in  private,  transacted  no  official  business,  except  that 
they  were  compelled,  by  a  decree  of  the  senate,  to  nom- 
inate a  dictator  to  preside  at  the  elections.  They  nomi- 
nated Quintus  Fabius  Ambustus  ;  and,  as  master  of  the 
horse,  Publius  TElius  Paetus.  But  some  irregularity  be- 
ing discovered  in  their  appointment,  there  was  substituted, 
in  their  .room,  Marcus  -^Emilus  Papus,  dictator,  and  Lu- 
cius Valerius  Flaccus,  master  of  the  horse.  But  neither 
did  these  hold  the  election :  and  the  people  being  dissat- 

*  In  the  original,  lati  clavi.  The  latus  clavus  was  a  tunic,  or  vest, 
ornamented  with  a  broad  stripe  of  purple  on  the  forepart,  worn  by  tho 
senators  ;  the  knights  wore  a  similar  one,  only  ornamented  with  a  nar- 
rower stripe.  Gold  rings  were  also  used,  as  badges  of  distinction  ;  the 
common  people  wore  iron  ones. 


52  GREAT   EVENTS. 

isfied  with  all  the  magistrates  of  that  year,  an  interregnum 
ensued.  The  office  of  interrex  was  held  by  Quintus 
Fabius  Maximus  ;  afterward,  by  Marcus  Valerius  Cor- 
vus,  who  elected  consuls,  Quintus  Publilius  Philo,  and 
Lucius  Papirius  Cursor,  a  second  time,  [A.  U.  C. 
434,  B.C.  318;]  a  choice  universally  approved,  for 
there  were  no  commanders,  at  that  time,  of  higher  repu- 
tation. 

They  entered  into  office,  immediately  on  being  elect- 
ed, for  so  it  had  been  determined  by  the  fathers.  When 
the  customary  decrees  of  the  senate  were  passed,  they 
proposed  the  consideration  of  the  Caudine  peace  ;  and 
Publilius,  whose  duty  it  was  to  open  the  business,  said, 
u  Spurius  Postumius,  speak."  He  arose,  with  just  the 
same  countenance  with  which  he  had  passed  under  the 
yoke,  and  delivered  himself  to  this  effect : 

"Consuls,  doubtless  I  am  to  be  called  up,  first,  with 
marked  ignominy,  not  with  honor  ;  and  am  ordered  to 
speak,  not  as  being  a  senator,  but  as  a  person  who  has  to 
answer  for  an  unsuccessful  war  and  disgraceful  peace. 
However,  the  question,  propounded  by  you,  is  not  concern- 
ing our  guilt  or  our  punishment.  Waving,  therefore,  a 
defence,  which  would  not  be  very  difficult,  before  men  who 
are  not  unacquainted  with  the  casualties  to  which  mankind 
are  subject,  I  shall  briefly  state  my  opinion,  on  the  mat- 
ter in  question  ;  which  opinion  will  testify,  whether  I  was 
actuated  by  tenderness  to  myself  or  to  your  legions,  when 
I  engaged,  as  surety,  to  the  convention,  be  it  of  what 
kind  it  may,  whether  dishonorable  or  necessary  :  by 
which,  however,  the  Roman  people  are  not  bound,  inas- 
much as  it  was  concluded  without  their  order  ;  nor  is  any 
thing  liable  to  be  forfeited  to  the  Samnites,  in  consequence 
of  it,  except  our  persons.  Let  us,  then,  be  delivered 
up  to  them,  by  the  heralds,  naked,  and  in  chains.  Let 
us  free  the  people  of  the  religious  obligation,  if  we  have 
bound  them  under  any  such  ;  so  that  there  may  be  no 
restriction,  Divine  or  human,  to  prevent  your  entering  on 
the  war,  anew,  without  violating  the  maxims  of  religion 
and  justice. 

u  I  am  also  of  opinion,  that  the  consuls,  in  the  mean 


SURRENDER  OF  THE  ROMANS,  NEAR  CAUDIUM.  53 

time,  enlist,  arm,  and  lead  out,  an  army  ;  but  that  they 
should  not  enter  the  enemy's  territories,  before  every 
particular,  respecting  the  surrender  of  us,  be  regularly 
executed.  And,  O  immortal  gods  !  I  pray  and  beseech 
you,  that,  although  it  has  not  been  your  will  that  Spurius 
Postumius  and  Titus  Veturius,  in  the  office  of  consuls, 
should  wage  war,  with  success,  against  the  Samnites, 
you  may  yet  deem  it  sufficient  to  have  seen  us  under 
the  yoke  ;  to  have  seen  us  bound  under  an  infamous 
convention  ;  to  have  seen  us  shackled,  and  delivered  into 
the  hands  of  our  foes,  taking  on  our  heads  the  whole  weight 
of  the  enemy's  resentment.  And  grant,  that  the  consuls 
and  legions  of  Rome  may  meet  the  same  fortune,  in  war 
against  the  Samnites,  which  has  attended  them  in  every 
war,  before  we  became  consuls." 

On  his  concluding  this  speech,  men's  minds  were  so  im- 
pressed with  admiration  and  compassion,  that  they  could 
scarce  believe  him  to  be  the  same  Spurius  Postumius  who 
had  been  the  author  of  so  shameful  a  peace  ;  lamenting,  at 
the  same  time,  that  such  a  man  was  likely  to  undergo, 
among  the  enemy,  a  punishment,  even  beyond  that  of  oth- 
ers, through  the  desire  of  annulling  the  peace.  All  the 
members,  showing  tenderness  towards  him,  expressed  their 
approbation  of  his  sentiments,  when  Lucius  Livius  and 
Quintus  Mselius,  being  tribunes  of  the  commons,  attempt- 
ed, for  a  time,  to  stop  the  proceeding,  by  a  protest ;  in- 
sisting, that  "the  people  could  not  be  acquitted  of  the 
religious  obligation,  from  the  consuls  being  given  up,  un- 
less all  things  were  restored  to  the  same  state  in  which 
they  had  been,  at  Caudium  ;  nor  had  they,  themselves, 
deserved  any  punishment,  for  having,  by  becoming  sure- 
ties to  the  peace,  preserved  the  army  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple ;  nor,  finally,  could  they,  being  sacred  and  invio- 
lable, be  surrendered  to  the  enemy,  or  treated  with  vio- 
lence." 

To  this,  Postumius  replied  :  u  In  the  mean  time,  sur- 
render us  as  unsanctified  persons,  which  you  may  do, 
without  offence  to  religion  ;  those  sacred  and  inviolable 
personages,  the  tribunes,  you  will  deliver  up,  as  soon  as 
they  go  out  of  office.  But,  if  you  listen  to  me,  thev  will 
5* 


54  GREAT   EVENTS. 

be  first  scourged,  with  rods,  here  in  the  Comitium,  by  way 
of  interest  for  the  punishment,  on  account  of  the  delay  of 
payment :  for,  as  to  their  denying  that  the  people  are  ac- 
quitted of  the  religious  obligation,  by  our  being  given  up, 
who  is  there,  so  ignorant  of  the  laws  of  the  heralds,  as 
not  to  know,  that  those  men  speak  in  that  manner  to  pre- 
vent themselves  from  being  surrendered,  rather  than  be- 
cause the  case  is  really  so  ?  Still,  I  do  not  deny,  con- 
script fathers,  that  compacts,  on  sureties  given,  are  as 
sacred  as  treaties,  in  the  eyes  of  all  who  regard  faith  be- 
tween men  with  the  same  reverence  which  is  paid  to  du- 
ties respecting  the  gods  ;  but  I  insist,  that,  without  the 
order  of  the  people,  nothing  can  be  ratified,  that  is  to  bind 
the  people. 

u  Suppose,  that,  out  of  the  same  arrogance  with  which 
the  Samnites  forced  from  us  the  convention  in  question, 
they  had  compelled  us  to  repeat  the  established  form  of 
words  for  the  surrendering  of  cities,  would  you,  tribunes, 
say  that  the  Roman  people  had  surrendered  ?  and  that 
this  city,  these  temples  and  consecrated  grounds,  these 
lands  and  waters,  have  become  the  properly  of  the  Sam- 
nites ?  I  say  no  more  of  the  surrender,  because  our 
having  become  sureties  is  the  point  insisted  on.  Now, 
suppose  we  had  become  sureties,  that  the  Roman  people 
should  quit  this  city  ;  that  they  should  set  it  on  fire  ;  that 
they  should  have  no  magistrates,  no  senate,  no  laws  ; 
that  they  should  in  future  be  ruled  by  kings  :  the  gods 
forbid,  you  say.  But  the  enormity  of  the  articles  lessens 
not  the  obligation  of  a  compact.  If  the  people  can  be 
bound,  in  any  one  instance,  they  can  in  all.  Nor  is  there 
any  importance,  in  another  circumstance,  which  weighs, 
perhaps,  with  some  :  whether  a  consul,  a  dictator,  or  a 
praetor,  be  the  surety.  And  this,  indeed,  was  the  judge- 
ment, even  of  the  Samnites  themselves,  who  were  satis- 
fied with  the  security  of  the  consuls,  but  compelled  the 
lieutenant-generals,  quaestors,  and  military  tribunes,  to 
join  them. 

"  Let  it  not,  then,  be  demanded  of  me,  why  I  entered 
into  such  a  compact,  when  no  such  power  was  lodged 
in  a  consul,  and  when  I  could  not,  either  to  them  in 


SURRENDER  OF  THE  ROMANS,  NEAR  CAUDIUM.  55 

sure  peace,  of  which  I  could  not  command  the  ratifica- 
tion ;  or,  in  behalf  of  you,  who  had  given  me  no  powers. 
Conscript  fathers,  none  of  the  transactions  at  Caudium 
were  directed  by  human  wisdom.  The  immortal  gods 
deprived  of  understanding,  both  your  generals  and  those 
of  the  enemy.  On  the  one  side,  we  acted  not  with  suffi- 
cient caution  ;  on  the  other,  they  threw  away  a  victory, 
which,  by  our  folly,  they  had  obtained,  while  they  hardly 
confided  in  the  places,  by  means  of  which  they  had  con- 
quered ;  but  were  in  haste,  on  any  terms,  to  take  arms 
out  of  the  hands  of  men  who  were  born  to  arms.  Had 
their  reason  been  sound,  would  it  have  been  difficult,  dur- 
ing the  time  which  they  spent  in  sending  for  old  men 
from  home  to  give  them  advice,  to  send  ambassadors  to 
Rome,  and  to  negotiate  a  peace  and  treaty  with  the  sen- 
ate and  with  the  people  ?  It  would  have  been  a  journey 
of 'only  three  days,  to  expeditious  travellers.  In  the  in- 
terim, matters  might  have  rested  under  a  truce,  that  is, 
until  their  ambassadors  should  have  brought  from  Rome 
either  certain  victory  or  peace.  That  would  have  been 
really  a  compact,  on  the  faith  of  sureties,  for  we  should 
have  become  sureties,  by  order  of  the  people.  But  nei- 
ther would  you  have  passed  such  an  order,  nor  should  we 
have  pledged  our  faith  ;  nor  was  it  the  will  of  fate,  that 
the  affair  should  have  any  other  issue,  than  that  they 
should  be  vainly  mocked  with  a  dream,  as  it  were,  of 
greater  prosperity  than  their  minds  were  capable  of  com- 
prehending, and  that  the  same  fortune  which  had  entan- 
gled our  army,  should  effectuate  its  deliverance  ;  that  an 
ineffectual  victory  should  be  succeeded  by  a  more  effect- 
ual peace  ;  and  that  a  convention,  on  the  faith  of  a  surety, 
should  be  introduced,  which  bound  no  other  person  be- 
sides the  surety  :  for  what  part  had  you,  conscript  fath- 
ers ?  what  part  had  the  people,  in  this  affair  ?  Who 
can  call  on  you  ?  Who  can  say,  that  he  has  been  de- 
ceived by  you  ?  Can  the  enemy  ?  Can  a  citizen  ?  To 
the  enemy,  you  engaged  nothing.  You  ordered  no  citi- 
zen to  engage  on  your  behalf.  You  are  therefore  no  way 
concerned,  either  with  us,  to  whom  you  gave  no  com- 
mission ;  nor  with  the  Samnites,  with  whom  you  trans- 


56  GREAT   EVENTS. 

acted  no  business.  We  are  sureties  to  the  Samnites  ; 
debtors,  whose  abilities  are  sufficiently  extensive  over 
that  which  is  our  own,  over  that  which  we  can  offer, — 
our  bodies  and  our  minds.  On  these,  let  them  exercise 
their  cruelty  ;  against  these,  let  them  whet  their  resent- 
ment and  their  swords.  As  to  what  relates  to  the  tri- 
bunes, you  will  consider,  whether  the  delivering  them  up 
can  be  immediately  effected,  or  if  it  must  be  deferred  to 
another  day.  Meanwhile,  let  us,  Titus  Veturius  and  the 
rest  concerned,  offer  our  worthless  persons  as  atonements 
for  the  non-performance  of  our  engagements^  and,  by  our 
sufferings,  liberate  the  Roman  armies." 

These  arguments,  and  still  more,  the  person  by  whom 
they  were  delivered,  powerfully  affected  the  senators  ; 
as  they  did,  likewise,  every  one,  not  excepting  even 
the  tribunes  of  the  commons,  who  declared  that  they 
would  be  directed  by  the  senate.  They  then  instant- 
ly resigned  their  office,  and  were  delivered,  together 
with  the  rest,  to  the  heralds,  to  be  conducted  to  Cau- 
dium. 

On  passing  this  decree  of  the  senate,  it  seemed  as  if 
some  new  light  had  shone  on  the  state.  Postumius  was 
in  every  mouth  ;  they  extolled  him  to  heaven  ;  and  pro- 
nounced him  to  have  equalled  in  glory  even  the  consul 
Publius  Decius,  who  devoted  himself.  "  Through  his 
counsel  and  exertions,"  they  said,  "  the  Republic  had 
raised  up  its  head,  after  being  sunk  in  an  ignominious 
peace.  He  now  offered  himself  to  the  enemy's  rage,  and 
to^torments,  and  was  suffering,  in  atonement  for  the  Ro 
man  people." 

All  turned  their  thoughts  towards  arms  and  war,  and  the 
general  cry  was,"  When  shall  we  be  permitted,  with  arms 
in  our  hands,  to  meet  the  Samnites  ?"  While  the  state 
glowed  with  resentment  and  rancor,  the  levies  were  com- 
posed almost  entirely  of  volunteers.  Legions,  composed 
of  the  former  soldiers,  were  quickly  formed,  and  an  army 
marr-hed  to  Catidium.  The  heralds,  who  went  before, 
on  coming  to  the  gate,  ordered  the  sureties  of  the  peace 
to  be  stripped  of  their  clothes,  and  their  hands  to  be  tied 
behind  their  backs.  As  the  apparitor,  out  of  respect  to 


SURRENDER  OF  THE  ROMANS,  NEAR  CAUDIUM.  57 

his  dignity,  was  binding  Postumius,  in  a  loose  manner, 
u  Nay,"  said  he,  "  draw  the  cord  tight,  that  the  surren- 
der may  be  regularly  performed."  Then,  when  they 
came  into  the  assembly  of  the  Sarnnites,  and  to  the  tri- 
bunal of  Pontius,  Aulus  Cornelius  Arvina,  a  herald,  pro- 
nounced these  words  :  u  Forasmuch  as  these  men,  here 
present,  without  orders  from  the  Roman  people,  the 
Quirites,  entered  into  surety  that  a  treaty  should  be 
made,  whereby  they  have  rendered  themselves  criminal ; 
now,  in  order  that  the  Roman  people  may  be  freed  from 
the  crime  of  impiety,  I  here  surrender  these  men  into 
your  hands." 

On  the  herald  saying  thus,  Postumius  gave  him  a 
stroke  on  the  thigh  with  his  knee,  as  forcibly  as  he  could, 
and  said,  with  a  loud  voice,  that  "  he  was  now  a  citi- 
zen of  Samnium,  the  other,  a  Roman  ambassador  ;  that 
the  herald  had  been  by  him  violently  ill-treated,  contrary 
to  the  law  of  nations  ;  and  that  the  people  he  represented 
would  therefore  have  the  more  justice  on  their  side,  in 
the  war  which  they  were  about  to  wage." 

Pontius  then  said,  "  Neither  will  I  accept  such  a  sur- 
render, nor  will  the  Samnites  deem  it  valid.  Spurius 
Postumius,  if  you  believe  -that  there  are  gods,  why  do 
you  not  undo  all  that  has  been  done,  or  fulfil  your  agree- 
ment ?  The  Samnite  nation  is  entitled,  either  to  all  the 
men  whom  it  had  in  its  power,  or,  instead  of  them,  to  a 
peace.  But  why  do  I  make  a  demand  on  you,  who, 
with  as  much  regard  to  faith  as  you  are  able  to  show,  re- 
turn yourself  a  prisoner  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.? 
I  make  the  demand  on  the  Roman  people.  If  they  are 
d'ssatisfied  with  the  convention  made  at  the  Caudine  forks, 
*et  them  replace  the  legions  within  the  defile,  where  they 
were  pent  up.  Let  there  be  no  deception,  on  either 
side.  Let  all  that  has  been  done,  pass  as  nothing.  Let 
them  receive,  again,  the  arms  which  they  surrendered,  by 
the  convention  :  let  them  return  into  their  camp.  What- 
ever they  were  in  possession  of,  the  day  before  the  coi> 
ference,  let  them  possess  again.  Then,  let  war  and  res- 
olute counsels  be  adopted.  Then,  let  the  convention 
and  peace  be  rejected.  Let  us  carry  on  the  war,  in  the 


58  GREAT   EVENTS. 

same  circumstances  and  situations  in  which  we  were,  be- 
fore peace  was  mentioned.  Let  neither  the  Roman  peo- 
ple blame  the  convention  of  the  consuls,  nor  us,  the  faith 
of  the  Roman  people.  Will  you  never  want  an  excuse 
for  violating  the  compacts  which  you  make,  on  being  de- 
feated ?  You  gave  hostages  to  Porsena  :  you  clandes- 
tinely got  them  back.  You  ransomed  your  state  from 
the  Gauls,  for  gold  :  while  they  were  receiving  the  gold, 
they  were  put  to  the  sword.  You  concluded  a  peace 
with  us,  on  condition  of  our  restoring  your  captured  le- 
gions :  that  peace  you  now  annul.  In  fine,  you  always 
spread  over  your  fraudulent  conduct  some  show  of 
right. 

"  Do  the  Roman  people  disapprove  of  their  legions  be- 
ing saved  by  an  ignominious  peace  ?  Let  them  take  back 
their  peace,  and  return  the  captured  legions  to  the  con- 
queror. This  would  be  conduct  consistent  with  faith, 
with  treaties,  and  with  the  laws  of  the  heralds.  But  that 
you  should,  in  consequence  of  the  convention,  obtain 
what  you  desired,  the  safety  of  so  many  of  your  country- 
men, while  I  obtain  not  what  I  stipulated  for,  on  send- 
ing you  back  those  men,  a  peace  ;  is  this  the  law,  which 
you,  Aulus  Cornelius,  which  you,  heralds,  prescribe  to 
nations  ?  But,  for  my  part,  I  neither  accept  those  men, 
whom  you  pretend  to  surrender,  nor  consider  them  as 
surrendered  ;  nor  do  I  hinder  them  from  returning  into 
their  own  country,  which  stands  bound,  under  an  actual 
convention,  carrying  with  them  the  wrath  of  all  the  gods, 
wjiose  authority  is  thus  despised.  Wage  war,  since 
Spurius  Postumius  has  just  now  struck  with  his  knee  the 
herald,  in  character  of  ambassador.  The  gods  are  to 
believe  that  Postumius  is  a  citizen  of  Samnium,  not  of 
Rome  ;  and  that  a  Roman  ambassador  has  been  violated 
by  a  Samnite  ;  and  that,  therefore,  you  have  just  grounds 
for  a  war  against  us.  That  men  of  years  and  of  consu- 
lar dignity  should  not  be  ashamed  to  exhibit  such  mock- 
cry  of  religion,  in  the  face  of  day  !  and  should  have  re- 
course to  such  shallow  artifices  to  palliate  their  breach 
of  faith,  as  not  even  children  would  allow  themselves  ' 
Go,  lictor,  take  off  the  bonds  from  those  Romans 


SURRENDER  OF  THE  ROMANS,  NEAR  CAUDIUM   59 

Let   no   one   hinder  them  to  depart,  when  they  think 
proper." 

Accordingly,  they  returned,  unhurt,  from  Caudium  to 
the  Roman  camp,  having  acquitted  certainly  their  own 
faith,  and  perhaps  that  of  the  public. 


60  GREAT  EVENTS. 


IMPEACHMENT  OF  PUBLIUS  CORNELIUS  SCI- 
PIO,  SURNAMED  AFRICANUS,  AND  OF  LUCIUS 
CORNELIUS  SCIPIO,  SURNAMED  ASIATICUS. 

BY  LIVY. 

LIVY,  or  Titus  Livius,  a  Roman  historian,  was  born  in 
Padua,  about  sixty  years  before  Christ.  He  removed  to 
Rome,  where  he  wrote,  at  least,  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
his  Work. 

The  impeachment  of  the  Scipios,  for  embezzlement  of 
public  money,  took  place  in  the  year  565,  after  the  build- 
ing of  Rome,  or  in  the  year  187,  before  the  birth  of  Christ  ; 
consequently,  about  a  century  and  a  half  before  Livy  wrote 
its  account.  The  following  extract  is  from  the  translation 
of  George  Baker. 

THE  two  Petilii,  as  Valerius  Antias  writes,  instituted 
a  prosecution  against  Publius  Scipio  Africanus.  This 
proceeding  was  variously  construed,  according  to  people's 
different  dispositions  ;  some  blamed,  not  the  plebeian  tri- 
bunes, but  the  public  in  general,  that  could  suffer  such  a 
process  to  be  carried  on.  They  observed,  that  "  the 
two  greatest  States  in  the  world  proved,  nearly  at  the  same 
time,  ungrateful  to  their  chief  commanders  :  but  Rome, 
the  more  ungrateful  of  the  two,  because  Carthage  was  sub- 
dued, when  she  sent  the  vanquished  Hannibal  into  exile  ; 
whereas  Rome,  when  victorious,  was  for  banishing  Afri- 
canus, who  procured  her  the  victory."  Others  asserted, 
that  "no  one  citizen  ought  to  stand  so  high  above  the 
rest,  as  not  to  be  made  answerable  to  the  laws,  for  his 
conduct ;  for  nothing  contributed  so  much  towards  main- 
taining the  equipoise  of  liberty,  as  that  the  most  power- 
ful nii^it  be  brought  to  trial.  For  how  could  any  charge, 
especially  the  administration  of  government,  be  safely  in- 
trusted to  any  man,  if  he  were  not  liable  to  be  called  tc 


IMPEACHMENT  OF  THE   SCIPIOS.  61 

an  account  ?  If  there  were  any,  who  could  not  endure 
an  equality  of  rights,  against  such,  force  might  justly  be 
employed."  Such  were  the  common  topics  of  conv^r- 
sation,  until  the  day  of  trial  came.  Never  was  either  any 
other  person,  or  Scipio  himself,  when  Consul  or  Censor, 
escorted  to  the  forum  by  more  numerous  multitudes,  of 
all  kinds,  than  he  was,  on  that  day,  when  he  appeared  to 
answer  to  the  charge  against  him.  When  ordered  to 
make  his  defence,  without  taking  any  notice  of  the  facts 
laid  to  his  charge,  he  delivered  a  speech,  in  which  he  set 
forth  his  own  exploits  in  such  splendid  terms,  that  it  was 
universally  agreed,  that  no  man's  praises  had  been  ever 
represented,  either  to  more  advantage  or  with  more  truth  : 
for  he  spoke  with  the  same  ardent  spirit  and  powerful 
genius,  which  had  ever  animated  his  conduct  in  discharg- 
ing the  duties  of  his  office  ;  nor  did  his  speech  excite  any 
disgust  in  the  hearers,  as  it  arose  from  the  peril  of  his 
situation,  not  from  motives  of  ostentation. 

The  plebeian  tribunes,  in  order  to  procure  credit  to 
their  present  accusations,  introduced  the  old  imputations, 
of  his  luxurious  style  of  living,  in  his  Winter-quarters  at 
Syracuse,  and  the  tumult  raised  by  Pleminius,  at  Locri. 
They  then  brought  forward,  against  him,  the  charge  of 
receiving  money,  which  they  grounded  on  suspicions,  not 
on  proofs.  They  alleged,  that  "his  son,  being  taken 
prisoner,  was  restored  without  ransom  ;  and  that,  in  ev- 
ery other  instance,  Antiochus  paid  his  court  to  him,  as  if 
peace  and  war  with  Rome  were  at  his  sole  disposal.  He 
had  acted  towards  the  Consul,  in  his  Province,  as  Dic- 
tator, not  as  lieutenant-general ;  nor  had  he  gone  thither 
with  any  other  view,  than  to  propagate  in  Greece  and 
Asia,  and  among  all  the  kings  and  nations  eastward,  the 
same  opinion,  which,  at  the  same  time,  prevailed  in 
Spain,  Gaul,  Sicily,  and  Africa,  that  he,  alone,  was  the 
head  and  pillar  of  the  Roman  empire  ;  that  a  State,  which 
was  mistress  of  the  world,  lay  sheltered  under  the  shade 
of  Scipio  ;  and  that  his  nods  were  equivalent  to  decrees 
of  the  Senate,  and  orders  of  the  people."  Finding  him 
invulnerable,  against  all  attacks  on  his  honor,  they  assailed 
him  with  the  shafts  of  envy.  The  pleading  having  lasted 

6  G.   E. 


62  GREAT  EVENTS. 

till  night,  the  trial  was  adjourned  to  another  day.  When 
that  came,  the  tribunes  took  their  seat  in  the  rostrum,  at 
the  dawn  of  day.  The  accused,  being  summoned,  came, 
with  a  numerous  train  of  friends  and  dependants,  through 
the  middle  of  the  assembly,  to  the- rostrum  ;  and,  silence 
being  made,  he  said,  "  Tribunes  of  the  people,  and  you, 
Romans  :  this  day  is  the  anniversary,  on  which  I  fought  a 
pitched  battle  in  Africa,  with  Hannibal  and  the  Carthagin- 
ians, and  found  good  fortune  and  success.  As,  there- 
fore, it  is  but  decent,  that  a  stop  be  put,  for  this  day,  to 
litigation  and  wrangling,  I  will  immediately  go  to  the  Cap- 
itol, there  to  return  my  acknowledgements  to  Jupiter,  su- 
premely good  and  great ;  to  Juno,  Minerva,  and  the  oth- 
er deities  presiding  over  the  Capitol  and  citadel,  and  will 
give  them  thanks,  for  having,  on  this  day,  and  at  many 
other  times,  endowed  me  both  with  the  will  and  ability 
to  perform  extraordinary  services  to  the  Commonwealth. 
Such  of  you,  also,  Romans,  as  can,  conveniently,  come 
with  me,  and  beseech  the  gods,  that  you  may  have  com- 
manders like  myself ;  since,  from  my  seventeenth  year  to 
old  age,  you  have  always  anticipated  my  years  with  hon- 
ors, and  I,  your  honors  with  services."  Accordingly, 
he  went  up  from  the  rostrum  to  the  Capitol ;  and,  at  the 
same  time,  the  whole  assembly  turned  about,  and  followed 
him  ;  insomuch,  that,  at  last,  even  the  clerks  and  mes 
sengers  left  the  tribunes,  not  one  remaining,  except  the 
slaves  who  attended  them,  and  the  crier,  whose  office  it 
was  to  summon  those  who  were  under  prosecution.  Sci- 
pio,  attended  by  the  whole  body  of  the  Roman  people, 
went  round  all  the  temples  of  the  gods,  not  only  in  the 
Capitol,  but  throughout  the  whole  city.  This  day  afford- 
ed more  ample  testimony  of  the  favor  of  the  public,  and 
a  clearer  estimate  of  his  real  greatness,  than  that  on  which 
he  rode  through  Rome,  in  triumph  over  King  Syphax  and 
the  Carthaginians. 

It  was,  however,  the  last  day  that  shone  with  lustre  on 
Publius  Scipio :  for,  as  he  could  foresee  nothing  but  the 
prosecutions  of  envy,  and  continual  disputes  with  the  tri- 
bunes, before  the  time,  to  which  the  hearing  of  the  cause 
was  adjourned,  he  retired  to  Liternum,  with  a  fixed  deter- 


IMPEACHMENT  OF  THE    SCIPIOS.  63 

mination  not  to  attend  the  trial.  His  natural  temper  and 
spirit  was  so  lofty,  and  he  had  been  habituated  to  such  an 
elevated  course  of  fortune,  that  he  did  not  know  how. to 
act  the  part  of  an  accused  person,  or  stoop  to  the  humble 
deportment  of  such  a  state.  When  the  day  came,  on 
his  not  appearing,  he  was  called  by  the  crier,  and  Lucius 
Scipio  offered,  as  an  excuse,  that  his  absence  was  caused 
by  sickness.  This  excuse,  the  tribunes,  who  were  the 
prosecutors,  would  not  admit ;  but  insisted,  that  his  not 
coming  to  answer  the  charges  against  him,  was  owing  to 
the  same  arrogance,  with  which  he  had  left  the  trial,  the 
tribunes  of  the  people,  and  the  general  assembly  ;  and, 
dragging  after  him,  like  prisoners,  the  very  men  whom  he 
had  robbed  of  the  right  of  passing  sentence  on  him,  to- 
gether with  their  freedom  of  suffrage,  had  exhibited  a  tri- 
umph over  the  Roman  people,  and  made  a  secession,  the 
same  day,  from  the  tribunes  to  the  Capitol.  "  You  have, 
therefore,"  said  they,  "  the  due  reward  of  that  thought- 
less conduct.  You  are,  yourselves,  forsaken  by  him, 
under  whose  lead  and  direction  you  forsook  us.  And,  sc 
much  is  the  Roman  spirit  daily  on  the  decline,  that,  al 
though,  seventeen  years  ago,  when  he  was  at  the  head  of 
an  army  and  fleet,  we  had  resolution  enough  to  send  ple- 
beian tribunes,  and  an  edile,  into  Sicily,  to  take  him  into 
custody,  and  bring  him  home  to  Rome  ;  yet  we  dare  not 
now,  when  he  is  a  private  citizen,  send  to  compel  him  to 
come  from  his  country-seat,  to  stand  his  trial."  Lucius 
Scipio  appealing  to  the  tribunes  of  the  commons,  they 
came  to  this  determination,  that,  "  as  sickness  had  been 
pleaded  in  his  excuse,  it  was  their  judgement,  that  this 
excuse  should  be  admitted,  and  that  their  colleagues  should 
adjourn  the  hearing  of  the  cause." 

Tiberius  Sempronius  Gracchus  was,  at  that  time,  a 
plebeian  tribune  ;  and  between  him  and  Publius  Scipio, 
there  was  an  enmity  subsisting.  He  had  forbidden  his 
name  to  be  subscribed  to  the  determination  of  his  col- 
league, and  every  one  expected  from  him  a  sentence  more 
severe,  when  he  pronounced  his  judgement  thus  :  that, 
u  Inasmuch  as  Lucius  Scipio  had  pleaded  sickness,  in 
excuse  for  his  brother,  that  plea  appeared  to  him  to  be 


64  GREAT  EVENTS. 

sufficient ;  that  he  would  not  suffer  any  further  proceed- 
ing against  Publius  Scipio,  until  he  should  return  to 
Rome  ;  and  even  then,  if  he  appealed  to  him,  he  would 
support  him,  in  refusing  to  abide  a  trial :  that  Publius 
Scipio,  by  his  great  achievements,  by  the  honors  received 
from  the  Roman  people,  by  the  joint  consent  of  gods  and 
men,  had  risen  to  such  a  height  of  dignity,  that,  were  he  to 
stand  as  a  criminal  under  .the  rostrum,  and  be  obliged  to 
listen  to  the  opprobrious  language  of  youthful  petulance, 
it  would  reflect  more  disgrace  on  the  Romans,  than  on 
him."  He  added,  with  much  Indignation,  "Shall  Sci- 
pio, the  celebrated  conqueror  of  Africa,  stand  at  the  feet 
of  you,  tribunes  ?  Was  it  for  this,  he  defeated  and  routed, 
in  Spain,  four  of  the  most  distinguished  generals  of  the 
Carthaginians,  and  their  four  armies  ?  Was  it  for  this, 
he  took  Syphax  prisoner,  conquered  Hannibal,  made  Car- 
thage tributary  to  you,  and  removed  Antiochus  beyond 
Mount  Taurus  ;  (in  the  glory  of  which,  by  the  way,  Lu- 
cius Scipio  was  associated  with  his  brother,  as  partner  ;) 
that  he  should  crouch  under  two  Petilii  ?  that  they  should 
gain  the  palm  of  victory  over  Publius  Africanus  ?  Will 
men  of  illustrious  characters  never,  through  their  own 
merits,  or  through  public  honors,  arrive  at  a  safe  and  in- 
violable sanctuary,  where  their  old  age  may  repose,  if  not 
revered,  at  least  secure  from  injury  ?"  Both  his  deter 
mination  and  subsequent  discourse  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion, not  only  on  the  rest  of  the  assembly,  but  even  on 
the  prosecutors  ;  who  said,  that  they  would  consider  fur- 
ther, what  might  be  consistent  with  their  rights  and  duties. 
As  soon  as  the  assembly  of  the  people  broke  up,  the  Sen- 
ate met,  and  there,  the  warmest  thanks  were  bestowed  by 
the  whole  body,  especially  by  the  consular  and  elder  mem- 
bers, on  Tiberius  Gracchus,  for  having  consulted  the  pub- 
lic good  in  preference  to  private  animosity  ;  while  the 
severest  reproaches  were  thrown  on  the  Petilii,  for  hav- 
ing attempted  to  bring  themselves  into  notice,  by  exciting 
the  displeasure  of  the  public  against  Africanus,  and  for 
ig  to  gather  spoils  from  a  triumph  over  him.  After 
Africanus  was  no  more  mentioned.  He  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life  at  Liternum,  without  a  wish  to  revisit 


IMPEACHMENT  OF  THE    SCIPIOS.  65 

the  city  ;  and  it  is  said,  that,  when  he  was  dying,  he  or- 
dered his  body  to  be  buried  at  his  own  country-seat,  and 
his  monument  to  be  erected  there,  that  even  his  funeral 
should  not  be  performed  in  his  ungrateful  country.  He 
was  a  man  of  eminent  merit ;  but  that  merit  was  more 
conspicuous  in  affairs  of  war,  than  in  those  of  peace. 
The  former  part  of  his  life  was  more  illustrious,  than  the 
latter  ;  because,  in  his  early  years,  he  was  continually 
employed  in  military  commands.  As  he  advanced  to  old 
age,  the  lustre  of  his  conduct  was  somewhat  faded,  as  oc- 
casions did  not  occur  to  call  forth  the  exercise  of  his  tal- 
ents. His  second  consulship,  even  if  we  add  to  it  the 
censorship,  was  far  from  being  equally  brilliant  with  the 
first.  Nor  can  we  compare  with  it,  his  commission  in 
Asia,  rendered  useless  by  want  of  health,  and  clouded 
by  the  misfortune  of  his  son,  and  the  necessity  which  it 
brought  him  under,  after  his  return,  of  either  undergoing 
a  trial,  or  withdrawing  himself  from  that  and  his  country 
together.  However,  he  enjoyed,  alone,  the  distinguished 
honor  of  putting  an  end  to  the  Carthaginian  war,  by  far 
the  most  difficult  and  dangerous  one  which  the  Roman 
State  was  ever  engaged  in. 

The  death  of  Africanus  increased  the  courage  of  his 
enemies,  the  chief  of  whom  was  Marcus  Porcius  Cato, 
who,  even  during  his  life,  allowed  himself  to  sneer  at  his 
splendid  character.  It  was  thought,  that  it  was  he  who 
instigated  the  Petilii,  both  to  commence  the  action  against 
Africanus,  and  to  propose  an  order  respecting  him,  after 
his  death.  The  motion  for  the  order  was  made  in  these 
words  :  u  Romans,  is  it  your  will  to  order,  with  respect 
to  the  money  taken,  carried  off,  and  collected,  from  King 
Antiochus,  and  those  under  his  government,  and  with  re- 
spect to  such  part  thereof,  as  has  not  been  accounted  for 
to  the  public,  that  Servius  Sulpicius,  the  city  pretor,  shall 
ask  the  Senate,  which  of  the  present  pretors  they  will 
appoint,  to  hold  an  inquiry  concerning  those  matters  ?" 
This  motion  was  at  first  objected  to,  by  Quintus  and  Lu- 
cius Mummius,  who  declared,  as  their  opinion,  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  practice  always  hitherto  observed,  the  Sen- 
ate should  make  the  inquiry  concerning  money  unaccount- 
6* 


66  GREAT   EVENTS. 

ed  for  to  the  public.  The  Petilii,  in  opposition,  repre- 
sented the  great  influence,  the  sovereign  power,  which 
the  Scipios  possessed  in  the  Senate.  Lucius  Furius  Pur- 
pureo,  a  senator  of  consular  rank,  who  had  been  one  of 
the  ten  ambassadors  in  Asia,  was  of  opinion,  that  the  in- 
quiry ought  to  be  carried  to  a  wider  extent ;  not  only  as 
to  the  money  taken  from  Antiochus,  but  to  what  had  been 
taken  from  other  kings  and  nations.  This  blow  he  aimed 
at  his  enemy,  Cneius  Manlius.  Lucius  Scipio,  who, 
as  every  one  knew,  was  arguing  rather  in  favor  of  himself 
than  against  the  order,  stood  forward  to  oppose  it.  He 
complained,  heavily,  of  such  a  motion  being  brought  on, 
after  the  death  of  his  brother,  Publius  Africanus,  the  brav- 
est and  most  illustrous  of  men.  For,  it  had  not  been 
deemed  sufficient,  that  no  panegyric  was  pronounced  from 
the  rostrum  on  Africanus,  after  his  death,  but  accusations 
of  misconduct  were  also  exhibited  against  him.  The 
Carthaginians  had  been  content  with  the  banishment  of 
^Hannibal ;  but  the  Roman  people  would  not  be  satisfied, 
~even  with  the  death  of  Publius  Scipio,  unless,  after  he 
was  laid'  in  his  grave,  his  character  were  mangled,  and  his 
brother  also  sacrificed,  another  victim  to  envy.  Marcus 
Cato  supported  the  motion,  in  a  speech,  on  the  money 
of  King  Antiochus,  which  is  still  extant ;  and,  by  his  in- 
fluence, prevailed  on  the  Mummii,  the  two  tribunes,  to 
drop  their  opposition  to  the  order.  On  their  withdraw- 
ing their  intended  protest,  every  one  of  the  tribes  voted 
in  favor  of  the  motion. 

Servius  Sulpicius  then  put  the  question  to  the  Senate, 
whom  they  would  appoint,  according  to  the  Petilian  order 
of  the  people,  to  hold  the  inquiry  ;  and  they  appointed 
Quintus  Terentius  Culeo.  This  pretor  was  so  warmly 
attached  to  the  Cornelian  family,  that,  according  to  the 
account  of  those  writers,  who  say  that  Publius  Scipio 
died  and  was  buried  at  Rome,  (for  that,  too,  is  asserted,) 
he  had  walked  at  his  funeral,  before  the  bier,  with  a  cap 
of  liberty  on  his  head,  as  he  had  done,  before,  at  his  tri- 
umph ;  and  that,  at  the  Capuan  gate,  he  gave  wine  and 
noney  to  those  who  attended  the  obsequies,  to  show  his 
gratitude  for  having  been  recovered  by  Scipio,  among 


IMPEACHMENT   OF  THE   SCIPIOS.  67 

other  captives,  out  of  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  in  Africa  , 
while  others  say,  he  was  so  great  an  enemy  to  that  family, 
that,  on  account  of  his  known  animosity,  the  faction  that 
supported  the  proceedings  against  the  Scipios,  singled  out 
him,  particularly,  to  hold  the  inquiry.  However  that  may 
be,  whether  he  was  too  favorable,  or  too  much  the  con- 
trary ;  before  him,  Lucius  Scipio  was  immediately  ar- 
raigned. At  the  same  time,  charges  were  presented  and 
received,  against  his  lieutenants-general,  the  two  Hosti- 
lius  Catos,  Aulus  and  Lucius,  and  his  questor,  Caius 
Furius  Aculeo  ;  and,  that  it  might  seem  as  if  every  one 
had  been  infected  with  the  contagion  of  peculation,  against 
his  two  secretaries  and  crier,  Lucius  Hostilius.  The 
secretaries  and  the  crier  were  acquitted,  before  Scipio 
was  tried.  Scipio,  and  Aulus  Hostilius,  lieutenant-gen- 
eral, and  Caius  Furius,  were  convicted,  and  judgement 
was  pronounced  that,  "  as  bribes,  for  granting  more  favor- 
able terms  of  peace  to  Antiochus,  Scipio  had  received, 
over  and  above  what  he  brought  into  the  treasury,  six 
thousand  pounds  weight  of  gold,  and  four  hundred  and 
eighty  of  silver  ;  Aulus  Hostilius,  eighty  pounds  of  gold, 
and  four  hundred  and  three  of  silver  ;  and  Furius,  the 
questor,  one  hundred  and  thirty  o'f  gold,  and  two  hundred 
of  silver."  These  sums  of  gold  and  silver,  I  find  men- 
tioned by  Antias.  As  to  what  regards  Lucius  Scipio, 
I  suspect  some  mistake  of  the  transcriber,  rather  than  a 
falsehood  of  the  historian,  respecting  the  amount  of  gold 
and  silver  ;  for  it  is  more  probable,  that  the  weight  of  sil- 
ver was  greater  than  that  of  gold,  and  that  the  fine  was 
laid  at  four  millions,*  than  at  twenty-four  millions  of  ses- 
terces, f  And  this  I  am  the  more  inclined  to  believe, 
as  it  is  recorded,  that  particulars  of  that  sum  being  de- 
manded from  Publius  Scipio,  himself,  in  the  Senate,  he 
desired  his  brother  Lucius  to  bring  the  book  which  con- 
tained them,  and  which  he  took  and  tore  to  pieces  before 
their  eyes  ;  at  the  same  time,  expressing  indignation,  at 
being  called  to  an  account  for  four  millions,  after  he  had 
brought  two  hundred  millions^  into  the  treasury.  From 

*  £3229  13s.  4d  t  .£193,750.  t  £1,614,583  6s.  8d. 


68  GREAT  EVENTS. 

the  same  magnanimity  of  spirit,  when  the  questors  would 
not  venture  to  bring  money  out  of  the  coffers,  contrary  tc 
law,  he  demanded  the  keys  of  the  treasury,  declaring,  that 
he  would  open  it,  as  he  had  caused  it  to  be  shut. 

There  are  so  many  contradictory  accounts,  respecting 
the  latter  part,  particularly,  of  Scipio's  life, — of  his  trial, 
death,  funeral,  and  sepulchre,  that  I  cannot  determine 
which  tradition,  or  which  writings,  I  ought  to  credit. 
Writers  do  not  agree,  as  to  his  accuser  ;  some  affirming 
that  Marcus  Naevius,  others,  that  the  Petilii,  instituted  the 
prosecution  ;  neither  are  they  agreed,  as  to  the  time  when 
it  was  carried  on,  nor  the  year  in  which  he  died,  nor  the 
place,  nor  where  he  was  buried.  Some  assert,  that  he 
died,  and  was  buried,  at  Rome  ;  others,  at  Liternum  ; 
and  in  both  places,  memorials  of  him  are  shown  ;  for,  at 
Liternum  there  was  a  monument,  and  on  it  stood  his 
statue,  which  was  lately  seen  lying  on  the  ground,  where 
it  had  been  thrown  down  by  a  storm.  At  Rome,  is  like- 
wise a  monument  of  the  Scipios  ;  and,  outside  the  Capuan 
gate,  are  three  statues,  two  of  which  are  said  to  be  those 
of  Publius  and  Lucius  Scipio,  and  the  third,  that  of  the 
poet  Quintus  Ennius.  Nor  do  these  differences  subsist 
between  historians,  only  ;  the  speeches  attributed  to  Pub- 
lius Scipio  and  Tiberius  Gracchus,  if  they  really  are 
theirs,  differ  widely  from  one  another.  In  the  title  of 
Publius  Scipio's  speech,  is  the  name  of  Marcus  Naevius, 
plebeian  tribune  ;  but  in  the  speech,  itself,  the  prosecutor 
is  not  named  ;  it  only  calls  him,  sometimes  a  knave,  some- 
times a  trifler.  Even  the  speech  of  Gracchus  makes  no 
mention  of  the  Petiliuses  accusing  Africanus,  or  of  the 
prosecution  carried  on  against  him.  The  whole  story 
must  be  framed  after  another  model,  to  make  it  consistent 
with  the  speech  of  Gracchus  ;  and  those  writers  must  be 
followed,  who  affirm,  that,  at  the  time  when  Lucius 'Sci- 
pio was  impeached,  and  convicted  of  having  taken  money 
from  the  king,  Africanus  was  a  lieutenant-general  in 
Ktrnria  ;  whence,  on  hrarinu;  of  this  misfortune,  throwing 
up  his  commission,  he  hastened  to  Rome,  proceeding 
straight  from  the  gate  to  the  forum.  Being  told  that  Lu- 
cius had  been  ordered  into  confinement,  he  drove 


IMPEACHMENT  OF  THE   SCIPIOS.  69 

the  officer  from  his  person  ;  and,  on  the  tribunes  attempt- 
ing to  detain  him,  laid  violent  hands  on  them,  showing 
more  affection  towards  his  brother  than  regard  for  the 
laws.  Of  these  acts,  Gracchus  himself  complained,  say- 
ing, that  the  tribunitian  power  was  illegally  annulled  ;  and, 
at  last,  when  he  promises  support  to  Lucius  Scipio,  he 
adds,  that  the  precedent  would  be  the  more  tolerable,  if 
both  the  tribunitian  authority  and  the  State  appeared  to 
be  overpowered  by  a  tribune  of  the  Commons,  than  if  by 
a  private  citizen.  But,  while  he  loaded  him  with  re- 
proaches, for  this  signal  instance  of  intemperate  violence  ; 
while  he  charged  him  with  having  degenerated  so  far  from 
himself;  he  displayed  his  long-established  praises  for  mod- 
eration, and  government^  of  his  passions,  in  such  strong 
terms,  as  to  make  ample  amends  for  the  present  repre- 
hension :  for  he  said,  that  Scipio  formerly  rebuked  the 
people,  severely,  for  their  intention  of  making  him  per- 
petual consul  and  dictator  ;  that  he  hindered  statues  to  be 
erected  to  him,  in  the  comitium,  in  the  rostrum,  in  the 
Senate-house,  in  the  Capitol,  in  the  chapel  of  Jupiter's 
temple  ;  and,  that  he  prevented  a  decree  being  passed, 
ordering  his  image,  in  a  triumphal  habit,  to  be  brought  in 
procession,  out  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  supremely  good 
and  great.  Such  particulars  as  these,  even  if  inserted  in 
a  professed  panegyric,  would  demonstrate  an  uncommon 
greatness  of  mind,  in  restraining  honors  conformably  to 
the  temper  of  a  constitution  founded  on  an  equality  of 
rights  ;  but,  here,  they  are  acknowledged  by  an  enemy, 
and  at  the  very  time  that  he  was  employed  in  censuring 
him. 

It  is  universally  agreed,  that  the  younger  of  Scipio's 
two  daughters  was  married  to  this  Gracchus  ;  for  the  el- 
der was,  undoubtedly,  disposed  of  by  her  father  to  Publius 
Cornelius  Nasica.  But  it  is  not  so  certain,  whether  she 
was  both  betrothed  and  married  after  her  father's  death, 
or  whether  we  are  to  credit  those  accounts,  which  say, 
that,  when  the  officers  were  taking  Scipio  to  prison,  and 
DO  other  of  the  tribunes  interfered  to  protect  him,  Grac- 
chus swore,  that  u  the  same  enmity  which  he  had  enter- 
tained against  the  Scipios  still  subsisted  ;  and  that  he  did 


70  GREAT  EVENTS. 

not,  by  any  act  of  his,  seek  to  gain  their  favor.  Bui 
that,  having  seen  Publius  Africanus  leading  the  kings  and 
generals  of  enemies  to  prison,  he  would  never  suffer  his 
brother  to  be  led  to  the  same  place."  They  add,  that 
the  senators,  happening  to  sup,  that  day,  in  the  Capitol, 
rose  up  together,  and  requested  of  Africanus,  before  the 
company  departed,  to  contract  his  daughter  to  Gracchus  ; 
that  the  contract  was  accordingly  executed,  in  due  form, 
in  the  presence  of  this  assembly  ;  and  that  Scipio,  on  his 
return  home,  told  his  wife  ./Emilia,  that  he  had  concluded 
a  match  for  her  younger  daughter  :  that  she,  feeling  her 
female  pride  hurt,  expressed  some  resentment,  on  not 
having  been  consulted  in  the  disposal  of  their  common 
child  ;  and  added,  that,  even  were  he  giving  lier  to  Tibe- 
rius Gracchus,  her  mother  ought  not  to  be  kept  in  igno- 
rance of  his  intention  :  to  which  Scipio,  rejoiced  at  her 
judgement  concurring  so  entirely  with  his  own,  replied, 
that  Gracchus  was  the  man  he  had  betrothed  her  to. 
These  circumstances  respecting  so  great  a  captain,  though 
variously  represented,  both  in  traditionary  and  written 
relation,  I  thought  not  fit  to  be  passed  over  in  silence. 

On  the  proceedings  being  finished  by  the  pretor  Quin- 
tius  Terentius,  Hostilius  and  Furius  were  condemned, 
and  gave  securities,  the  same  day,  to  the  city  questors. 
Scipio  insisted,  that  all  the  money  received  by  him  was  in 
the  treasury,  and  that  he  had  not  in  his  possession  any 
thing,  whatsoever,  belonging  to  the  public  ;  on  which  he 
was  ordered  to  prison.  Publius  Scipio  Nasica  then  ap- 
pealed to  the  tribunes,  and  made  a  speech,  fraught  with 
just  encomiums,  not  only  on  the  Cornelian  family,  in  gen- 
eral, but  on  his  own  branch  of  it,  in  particular.  u  His 
father,"  he  said,  "  and  the  father  of  Publius  Africanus 
and  Lucius  Scipio,  who  was  now  ordered  to  prison,  were 
Cneius  and  Publius  .Scipio,  men  of  the  most  illustrious 
dnrarinrs  ;  who,  by  their  conduct  in  war,  through  a  long 
course  of  years,  against  many  commanders  and  many  ar- 
mies of  the  Carthaginians  and  Spaniards,  highly  enhanced 
the  reputation  of  the  Roman  name,  in  the  land  of  Spain  ; 
and  that,  not  only  by  their  military  exploits,  but  also  by 
exhibiting  to  the  nations  of  that  country,  shining  exam- 


IMPEACHMENT  OP  THE   SCl'PIOS.  71 

pies  of  Roman  moderation  and  fidelity  ;  both,  at  last, 
meeting  their  death  in  the  service  of  the  Roman  people. 
Although  their  descendants  might  have  contented  them- 
selves with  supporting  the  glory  derived  from  them,  yet 
Publius  Africanus  so  far  surpassed  his  father's  renown,  as 
to  occasion  a  belief,  that  he  was  not  born  of  the  human 
race,  but  was  of  divine  extraction.  As  to  Lucius  Scipio, 
the  person  then  concerned,  (to  pass  over  his  exploits  in 
Spain  and  in  Africa,  while  he  acted  as  lieutenant-general 
to  his  brother,)  on  his  being  elected  Consul,  so  high  did 
he  stand  in  the  estimation  of  the  Senate,  that  they  thought 
proper  to  assign  to  him  the  province  of  Asia,  and  the 
war  with  Antiochus,  by  a  special  order,  without  leaving 
it  to  the  decision  of  the  lots  ;  while,  in  that  of  his  brother, 
after  having  been  honored  with  two  consulships,  the  cen- 
sorship, and  a  triumph,  he  thought  fit  to  attend  him  into 
Asia,  in  quality  of  lieutenant-general.  There,  that  the 
great  and  splendid  character  of  the  lieutenant  might  not 
eclipse  the  fame  of  the  Consul,  it  so  happened,  that,  on 
the  day  when  Lucius  Scipio  conquered  Antiochus  in  a 
pitched  battle,  at  Magnesia,  Publius  Scipio  was  absent,  at 
the  distance  of  several  days'  journey,  being  detained  by 
sickness  at  Elaea.  The  army  of  the  enemy,  on  that  oc- 
casion, was  not  inferior  to  that  of  Hannibal,  when  the 
battle  was  fought  with  him  in  Africa  ;  and  the  same  Han- 
nibal, who  was  commander-in-chief  in  the  Carthaginian 
war,  was  one,  among  many  other  generals,  then  present, 
on  the  king's  side.  The  war,  indeed,  was  so  conducted, 
that  no  one  could  throw  blame  even  on  fortune.  A  ground 
of  accusation  is  sought  for,  in  the  peace,  and  people  say, 
that  it  was  sold.  This  charge  is  as  applicable  to  the  ten 
ambassadors,  in  pursuance  of  whose  counsel  the  peace 
was  concluded.  Some  of  the  ten  ambassadors  had  even 
stood  forth  as  accusers  of  Cneius  Manlius  ;  yet  their 
charges  were  so  far  from  gaining  credit,  that  they  did  not 
produce  even  a  delay  of  his  triumph. 

<c  But,  truly,  the  very  articles  of  the  peace  afford 
grounds  of  suspicion,  respecting  Scipio,  as  being  too  fa- 
vorable to  Antiochus  ;  for  his  entire  kingdom  has  been  left 
to  him.  Although  conquered,  he  retains  possession  of  every 


72  GREAT  EVENTS. 

thing  that  belonged  to  him,  before  the  war  ;  and,  though 
he  had  an  immense  quantity  of  gold  and  silver,  none  of  it 
has  been  applied  to  the  use  of  the  public  :  all  has  been 
converted  to  private  purposes.  Now,  was  there  not  a 
larger  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  carried  before  the  eyes 
of  the  public,  in  the  triumph  of  Lucius  Scipio,  than  in  ten 
other  'triumphs  taken  together  ?  Why  need  I  speak  of 
the  extent  of  the  kingdom  of  Antiochus,  or  mention  his 
having  been  in  possession  of  all  Asia,  and  the  adjoining 
parts  of  Europe  ?  Every  body  knows,  what  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  earth  that  is,  which  stretches 
from  Mount  Taurus  quite  to  the  jEgean  sea  ;  what  a  num- 
ber, not  only  of  cities,  but  of  nations,  it  comprehends  ; 
and  that  this  tract,  as  far  as  the  summit  of  the  said  mount, 
more  than  thirty  days'  journey  in  length,  and  ten  in 
breadth,  from  one  sea  to  the  other,  has  been  taken  from 
Antiochus,  who  is,  thereby,  removed  to  the  most  distant 
corner  of  the  world  ?  Now,  if  peace  had  been  granted 
him  without  any  pecuniary  consideration,  could  more  have 
been  taken  from  him  ?  Macedonia  was  left  to  Philip,  after 
he  was  conquered  ;  Lacedaemon  to  Nabis  ;  yet  Quintius 
was  never  accused,  on  that  account.  The  reason  was, 
that  he  had  "not  Africanus  for  a  brother,  whose  high  re- 
nown ought  to  have  been  serviceable  to  Lucius  Scipio; 
but,  instead  of  that,  envy  of  his  merit  had  done  him  injury. 
The  sentence  mentioned  a  quantity  of  gold  and  silver 
being  conveyed  to  the  house  of  Lucius  Scipio,  greater 
than  could  be  raised  from  the  sale  of  his  whole  property. 
Where,  then,  was  all  this  royal  treasure  ;  where  the  value 
of  so  many  estates  received  ?  Surely,  in  a  house  not 
exhausted  by  extravagance,  this  new  accumulation  of 
wealth  ought  to  appear.  But  what  cannot  be  levied  out 
of  his  effects,  the  enemies  of  Lucius  Scipio  will  exact 
from  his  person,  and  from  his  very  flesh,  by  vexatious  per- 

ion  and  insult ;  by  shutting  up  u  man  of  his  illustri- 
ous character  in  a  prison,  among  thieves  and  robbers  ; 

.j;  him  to  breathe  his  la.st  in  a  dmmeon  and  in  dark- 
ness, and  then  throwing  his  naked  corpse  before  the  prison 
door.  Such  proceedings  \\ill  reflect  more  disgrace  on 
the  city  of  Rome  than  they  will  on  the  Cornelian  family. " 


IMPEACHMENT   OP  THE   SCIPIOS.  73 

In  answer  to  this,  the  pretor  Terentius  read  the  Pe- 
tilian  order  of  the  people,  the  decree  of  the  Senate,  and 
the  judgement  pronounced  against  Lucius  Scipio  ;  and 
declared,  that,  unless  the  money  adjudged  were  paid  into 
the  public  treasury,  he  had  no  other  step  to  take,  than  to 
order  the  person  convicted  to  be  taken  into  custody,  and 
carried  to  prison.  The  tribunes  retired,  to  confer  togeth- 
er, and,  in  a  short  time  after,  Caius  Fannius,  in  behalf 
of  himself  and  all  his  colleagues,  except  Gracchus,  de- 
clared, that  the  tribunes  would  not  interfere  with  the  pre- 
tor, to  hinder  his  making  use  of  his  power.  Tiberius 
Gracchus  pronounced  his  determination  thus  :  "  That  he 
would  not  protest  against  the  pretor's  levying  the  sum  ad- 
judged, out  of  the  effects  of  Lucius  Scipio,  but  that  Lu- 
cius Scipio,  who  had  subdued  the  most  powerful  king 
in  the  world,  had  extended  the  empire  of  the  Roman 
people  to  the  utmost  limits  of  the  earth,  had  bound  under 
obligations  to  the  Roman  people  King  Eumenes,  the 
Rhodians,  and  so  many  other  states  of  Asia,  and  had  led 
in  triumph  so  many  generals  of  the  enemies,  should  lie  in 
prison,  among  the  enemies  of  the  Roman  people,  and  in 
chains,  he  never  would  suffer  ;  and,  therefore,  he  ordered 
him  to  be  discharged. "  This  decision  was  heard  with 
such  approbation  ;  so  happy  were  the  people  at  seeing 
Lucius  Scipio  at  liberty  ;  that  it  could  hardly  be  supposed, 
that  the  sentence  had  been  passed  in  the  same  communi- 
ty. The  pretor  then  sent  the  questors  to  take  possession 
of  Lucius  Scipio's  property,  for  the  use  of  the  public. 
But,  so  far  from  any  trace  appearing,  of  money  received 
from  the  king,  the  sale  did  not  produce  near  as  much  as 
the  sum  in  which  he  was  fined.  So  large  a  contribution 
was  made  for  Lucius  Scipio  by  his  relations,  friends,  and 
dependants,  that,  if  he  had  accepted  it,  he  would  have 
been  much  richer,  than  before  this  misfortune  ;  but  he 
would  receive  nothing.  Such  things,  as  were  necessary 
for  his  family  occasions,  were  purchased  for  him,  at  the 
sale,  by  his  nearest  relations  ;  and  the  public  hatred,  which 
had  been  pointed  against  the  Scipios,  reverted  on  the 
pretor,  his  accessors,  and  the  accusers. 

7  G.    Ei 


74  GREAT  EVENTS. 


DELIVERY  OF  THE  FOUR  SWISS  FOREST 
DISTRICTS,  (WALDSTALLE.) 


AEGIDIUS  TSCHUDI,  (pronounced  Chudi,)  was  born  at 
Glarus,  in  Switzerland,  in  1505,  and  of  good  family.  He 
pursued  a  regular  course  of  studies  in  his  native  country, 
and  afterwards  went  to  Paris.  Protestants  and  Roman 
Catholics,  among  his  countrymen,  esteemed  him  alike,  and 
intrusted  him  with  important  employments.  He  was  chosen 
Landamman,  or  chief  magistrate  of  Glarus,  and  died  in 
1572.  His  Swiss  Chronicle  is  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
works  of  the  kind.  He  collected,  with  unabated  zeal,  from 
all  sources  accessible  to  him,  among  which  the  archives 
of  his  country  were  the  most  important.  His  work  was 
published  only  as  far  as  the  year  1470,  although  he  had 
collected  manuscripts  for  the  history  of  one  more  century. 
The  title  of  the  work  is  '  Aegidii  Tschudii  Landamman  of 
Glarus,  Chronicon  Helveticum  ;  or,  Accurate  Description 
of  the  most  Remarkable  Events  in  the  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire, as  well  as,  in  particular,  in  the  Honorable  (Swiss) 
Confederacy,  and  neighboring  Places.  The  whole  col- 
lected from  authentic  Letters  and  Documents,  &c.,  in  the 
chief  Archives  of  the  Honorable  Confederacy.  Edited  by 
R.  Irelin.'  Tschudi's  Chronicle  is  written  in  the  Swiss 
dialect  of  German. 

Albert,  the  son  of  the  German  Emperor,  Rudolph  of 
Hapsburg,  desired  to  erect  a  new  dukedom  in  Helvetia, 
or  Switzerland,  which  should  depend  upon  his  family,  so 
that  all  the  scattered  domains  appertaining  to  the  family, 
between  which  the  territory  of  the  intended  dukedom  lay, 
should  be  more  firmly  united.  When  he  had  acquired  the 
imperial  crown,  after  the  defeat  of  his  opponent,  Adolphus 
of  Nassau,  he  proposed  to  the  free  inhabitants  of  the  Swiss 
districts,  Uri,  Schwytz,  and  Unterwalden,  to  exchange  their 
direct  dependence  on  the  Germanic  empire,  of  which  they 
were  members,  for  the  more  powerful  protection  of  the 
House  of  Austria,  or  Hapsburg.  Contrary  to  the  rights 
of  these  Swiss,  Albert  had  appointed  over  them  Austrian, 


DELIVERY  OF  THE   SWISS  DISTRICTS.  75 

instead  of  imperial,  officers.  The  Swiss  complained,  and 
asked  for  the  appointment  of  imperial  bailiffs,  or  landvogts. 
Albert  did,  indeed,  appoint  such,  but  in  a  manner  greatly 
to  harass  the  formerly  contented  mountaineers.  In  brief, 
the  struggle  was  between  Austrian  power  and  Swiss  inde- 
pendence. To  this  struggle,  relates  the  following  extract 
from  Tschudi,  Volume  I.,  Book  4. 

ANNO  DOMINI,  1304,  when  the  districts  of  Uri, 
Schwytz,  and  Unterwalden,  wera  sorely  oppressed,  in 
that  the/ bailiffs  of  Lucern  of  Rotenburg,  officers  of  the 
dukes  of  Austria,  administered  high  justice  with  them, 
which  now  had  lasted  three  years.  The  Swiss  were 
afraid,  that  this  beginning  might  end  in  Austrian  domin- 
ion over  them,  as  though  they  were  subjects  to  Austria  ; 
especially,  as  some  of  the  commissioners  had  dropped, 
when  administering  criminal  justice,  that  they  did  so  in  the 
name  of  Austria,  [that  is,  not  as  officers  of  the  German 
empire.]  The  mentioned  districts,  therefore,  saw  nec- 
essary to  send,  once  more,  their  earnest  message  to  King 
Albert,*  in  order  to  request  him  to  send  them  an  imperial 
bailiff,  who  should  administer  justice  in  the  name  of  the 
empire,  according  to  ancient  usage  ;  and  also  respectfullv 
to  pray  his  royal  dignity,  that  he  would  protect  their  impe- 
rial and  regal  liberties  and  ancient  customs.  They  would 
not  pray  for  their  confirmation,  since,  on  former  occasions, 
it  had  always  been  in  vain. 

When  this  request  was  made,  the  King  became  an- 
gry, because  he  saw,  that,  neither  by  good  words,  kindness, 
nor  intrigues,  he  had  succeeded  in  making  them  subject 
to  his  sons,  the  princes  of  Austria,  or  in  disuniting  them. 
He  said  to  the  messengers,  "  Go  home,  since  it  must  be 
so,  and  you  will  have  it ;  we  will  giv*e  you  imperial  bai- 
liffs in  your  countries.  Ye  shall  obey  their  orders,  in  all 
things,  as  if  ourselves  ;  and,  if  ye  shall  not  do  it,  we  shall 
revenge  it  on  your  lives  and  goods,  and  ye  shall,  hence- 
forth, have  forfeited  all  your  privileges." 

*  The  head  of  the  German  empire  was  called  King,  until  actually 
crowned  as  Emperor.  When  a  successor  was  elected,  while  the  Em- 
peror was  yet  living,  he  was  likewise  called  King. 


76  GREAT    EVENTS. 

Shortly  thereupon,  the  King  sent  them  two  landvogts, 
(bailiffs,)  in  the  name  of  the  empire,  and  ordered  them  to 
reside  in  their  country,  which  had  never  been  the  custom. 

In  the  year  1305,  the  three  lands,  Uri,  Schwytz,  and 
Unterwalden,  sent  their  respectful  messages  to  King  Al- 
bert, to  complain  of  the  severity  and  cruelty,  with  which 
his  vogts,  Gessler  and  Landenberg,  treated  them,  and  to 
beg  his  royal  Highness  graciously  to  abolish  this  ill-usage, 
and  to  protect  them  in  their  liberties  and  customs.  But 
the  King  would  not  hear  them.  Yet  he  allowed  them  to 
appear  before  his  counsellors.  To  them,  the  messengers 
told  the  tyranny  of  the  landvogts,  how  they  oppressed  the 
country  people,  for  trifling  causes,  and  frequently  without 
any  cause,  or  honest,  just  evidence,  against  their  privileges 
and  liberties  ;  how  they  imprisoned  them  in  towers  or 
stocks  ;  fined  them,  also  ;  sometimes,  drove  them  out  of 
the  country ;  and,  many  times,  suffered  them  to  rot  and 
perish  in  the  prisons,  &c. 

The  royal  counsellors,  after  having  consulted,  gave  an- 
swer :  They  (the  three  lands)  should  consider,  that  they, 
themselves,  had  caused  this  severity,  and  had  made  the 
King  ungracious,  since  they  would  not  act  like  those  of 
Lucern,  Glarus,  and  others  ;  and,  if  they  should  ever  do 
the  same,  they  would  then,  without  fail,  enjoy  full  favor 
from  the  King,  and  his  sons,  the  dukes  of  Austria. 
They  should  now  return,  the  King  being  burdened  with 
much  business  ;  but,  at  a  proper  time,  they,  the  counsel- 
lors, would  lay  their  prayer  before  him. 

With  this,  they  were  obliged  to  return,  without  any 
other  answer;  and,  when  they  came  home,  it  became  worse 
than  ever,  the  vogts  beginning  to  be  still  more  cruel. 

In  this  year,  (1306,)  at  the  beginning  of  the  fall  of  the 
leaf,  the  lord  of  Wolfenschiessen,  King's  bailiff  in  the  cas- 
tle of  Rotzberg,  in  Unterwalden,  below  the  Kermvahl, 
rode  toward  Engelberg,  into  the  convent  there  ;  and  when, 
on  the  morrow,  he  left  the  convent,  he  found  the  wife  of 
a  godly  countryman,  called  Cunrat  of  Baumgarten,  who 
was  of  At/i •!< -i),  in  a  meadow,  where  she  was  at  work  ; 
for  Atzelen  is  situated  below  the  wood,  near  the  road 
from  Stans  to  Engelberg,  not  far  behind  the  village  of 


DELIVERY  OF  THE  SWISS   DISTRICTS  77 

Wolfenschiessen,  upon  a  rising  ground.  The  woman  was 
wonderfully  beautiful,  and  the  bailiff  was  kindled  in  wicked 
desire,  on  account  of  her  beauty.  So  he  asks  the  woman, 
where  her  husband  was  ?  The  woman  answers,  that  he 
had  gone  out,  and  was  not  at  home.  He  asks,  again, 
when  he  would  come  home.  The  woman  was  not  aware, 
that  all  this  conversation  was  on  her  account,  but  feared, 
that  her  husband  might  have  done  something,  that  had 
displeased,  so  that  the  bailiff  would  punish  him,  because 
he  asked,  so  carefully,  where  he  was  ;  for  she  knew  his 
cruel  disposition  ;  therefore,  she  answered,  she  believed 
he  would  be  absent  for  some  days,  she  could  not  say  how 
long  ;  (yet  she  knew,  very  well,  that  he  was  in  the  wood, 
and  would  be  home  for  dinner. )  When  the  bailiff  heard  this, 
he  spoke  to  the  woman:  "Woman,  I  shall  go  home  with 
thee,  for  I  have  to  say  something  to  thee."  The  woman 
startled,  but  durst  not  contradict  him,  and  went  with  him. 
When  there,  he  ordered  her  to  prepare  a  bath,  for  that 
the  walking  had  made  him  tired  and  dusty.  Then  the 
woman  apprehended  nothing  good,  and  longed,  in  her 
mind,  for  her  husband,  that  he  might  soon  come  from  the 
wood,  and  unwillingly  prepared  the  bath.  And,  when  the 
bath  was  prepared,  the  vogt  began  to  show  his  wickedness, 
and  desired  her  to  bathe  with  him.  The  woman  trembled, 
for  she  could  well  see,  that  he  meant  to  use  violence;  she 
prayed  to  God,  in  her  heart,  to  protect  her  honor,  and 
avert  her  degradation.  And  now  she  thought  upon  a 
scheme,  spoke  kindly  with  the  vogt,  as  if  she  would  do 
as  he  desired,  and  said  to  him,  he  ought  to  tell  his  ser- 
vants, (of  whom  he  had  two  with  him,)  to  go  away  ;  after 
that,  she  would  join  him  in  the  bath.  The  vogt  bade  the 
servants  go  away,  and  the  woman  told  him  to  go  into  the 
bath  ;  she,  in  the  mean  time,  would  prepare  herself,  in  her 
room,  and  soon  join  him.  The  vogt  did  as  she  desired. 
But  the  woman  went  out  of  the  back-door,  and  meant  to 
stand  there  ;  when  presently  comes  her  husband,  to  whom, 
with  tears,  and  a  low  voice,  she  whispers  what  the  tyrant 
had  intended  with  her,  and  how  he  was  now  in  the  bath. 
The  honest  man  said,-  "  Praised  be  the  Lord,  my  pious 
wife,  that  he  has  protected  thee,  that  thou  hast  saved  thine 
7* 


78  GREAT  EVENTS. 

honor  ;  I  '11  bless  his  bath,  that  he  shall  injure  no  more 
women  ;  for  it  is  better  that  I  wager  my  life,  than  that 
any  shame  should  befall  thee,  my  beloved  wife.  Where- 
upon, he  quickly  went  into  the  house,  and  knocked  the 
bailiff  on  the  head,  with  his  axe,  that  he  died  with  one 
blow.  The  man  fled,  immediately,  to  Uri,  where  he  re- 
mained in  secret,  although  diligently  pursued,  on  account 
of  the  shameful  deed  which  the  vogt  had  intended  to  per- 
petrate. 

Anno  Domini,  1307,  there  was  a  godly  countryman  in 
Unterwalden,  above  the  Kernwald,  who  was  called  Hen- 
ry von  Melchtal,  and  resided  in  the  same  valley,  (that  is, 
at  Melchtal)  a  wise,  judicious,  honorable,  and  substan- 
tial man,  and  well  esteemed  among  the  country  folks, 
and  always  actively  maintaining,  that  they  should  stick  to 
their  privileges,  and  not  allow  themselves  to  be  separated 
from  the  empire,  for  which  Beringer  of  Landenberg, 
land  vogt  over  the  whole  of  Unterwalden,  was  very  hos- 
tile to  him.  This  Melchtal  had  fine  cattle  ;  and,  for  some 
trifling  offence,  which  his  son  Arnold  of  Melchtal,  was 
said  to  have  committed,  (which,  however,  the  same  de- 
nied, and,  had  it  been  true,  the  honestly-awarded  fine 
could  not  have  amounted  to  more  than  five  shillings,)  the 
landvogt  sent  his  servants,  to  seize  upon  his  finest  yoke 
of  oxen,  as  a  fine  due  to  him  ;  and  should  the  old  Henry 
of  Melchtal  object  to  it,  the  servant  should  answer,  that 
it  was  the  vogt's  opinion,  the  peasants  themselves  should 
pull  the  plough,  and  upon  this,  he  should  seize  the  oxen, 
and  bring  them  to  him.  The  servant  did  as  the  master 
had  bid  him.  The  honest  man  did  not  like  that  his  own 
should  be  taken  from  him,  by  force,  and  said,  his  son  was 
not  guilty,  and  if  the  vogt  had  any  right  against  him,  he 
should  prove  it  by  law,  and  then  punish  ;  but  the  servant 
insisted  upon  having  the  oxen,  as  he  had  been  ordered. 
And  when  he  unyoked  them,  the  son  of  the  farmer,  Ar 
nnl'l,  (who  was  a  young  man,)  kindled  in  wrath,  and  gave 
n  blow,  with  a  stick,  ovrr  the  hand  of  the  servant,  and 
broke  one  of  his  fingers,  upon  which  he  forthwith  fled 
from  out  the  land,  to  Uri,  where  he  hid  himself,  for  a 
Jong  while,  with  one  of  his  kinsfolks,  and  where  Cunrat  of 


DELIVERY  OF  THE    SWISS  DISTRICTS.  79 

Atzelen  was  likewise  concealed.  The  servant  made  great 
complaint  to  the  landvogt,  who  sent  in  anger,  for  the 
youth's  old  father,  and  ordered  the  youth  to  be  imprisoned. 
But  when  the  youth  was  not  to  be  found,  for  he  had  fled, 
the  old  man  alone  arrived.  The  landvogt  addressed  him, 
in  harsh  and  violent  words,  and  commanded  him  to  bring, 
immediately,  his  son  Arnold.  The  honest  man  himself 
did  not  yet  know  where  his  son  was,  and  easily  perceived, 
that,  were  he  present,  his  life  would  be  endangered.  He 
answered,  that,  in  truth,  he  did  not  know,  himself,  where 
his  son  was,  for  he  had  run  from  home  immediately,  and 
never  informed  him  whither  he  meant  to  go.  Upon  this, 
the  landvogt  ordered  that  the  old  father  (who  was  an  hon- 
orable man,  far  advanced  in  years,)  should  lose  both  his 
eyes  ;  for  the  servant  had  informed  him  that  the  old  man 
had  said,  he  was  going  to  take  his  property  unjustly ; 
and,  in  addition,  he  took  the  oxen,  and  commanded  the 
blind  man  to  pay  a  large  sum  to  the  servant,  for  the  bro- 
ken finger.  The  country  folks  became,  upon  this  cruel 
tyranny,  very  visibly  exasperated.  And  when  Arnold, 
the  son,  learned  what  had  happened  to  his  pious  father, 
he  secretly  complained  of  it  to  some  faithful  people  in 
Uri,  and  hoped,  in  time,  to  revenge  the  cruelty  inflicted 
upon  his  father.  The  country  people  expostulated  with 
the  landvogt,  that  it  was  burdensome  for  them  to  be  treat- 
ed thus  severely  ;  but  the  landvogt  answered,  that  the 
King,  whose  servant  he  was,  had  ordered  him  to  treat 
them  thus. 

At  the  same  time,  Gessler,  the  landvogt  of  Uri  and 
Schwytz,  oppressed  both  the  nobles  and  the  common 
people  of  these  districts,  as  much  as  Landenberg  did  at 
Unterwalden  ;  kept  them  hard  and  severe,  and  obliged 
them  to  build  a  castle  at  Uri,  that  he,  and  other  landvogts 
after  him,  might  live  there  in  greater  safety,  if  there  should 
be  disturbances,  and  that  the  country  might  altogether  be 
kept  in  better  obedience.  He  therefore  caused  stone, 
mortar,  sand,  and  timber,  to  be  carried  on  a  hill,  called 
Salaturn,  near  AltdorfF,  the  chief  place,  and  began  to  ex- 
ecute the  work  ;  and,  when  he  was  asked,  what  name  he 
was  going  to  give  to  the  castle,  he  answered,  "  the  name 


80  GREAT  EVENTS. 

shall  be,  Zvving  (force  or  subdue)  Uri  under  the  Rod." 
This  gave  great  scandal  to  the  nobles  of  the  land  and  the 
country  people,  in  Uri,  and  this  building,  was  a  great 
thorn  in  their  eyes.  When  he  observed  that  they  highly 
resented  this  rearing  of  a  castle,  he  became  enraged,  and 
swore  he  would  make  them  so  soft,  that  he  would  wind 
them  round  his  finger. 

And,  upon  the  day  of  St.  Jacobi,  he  caused  to  be 
planted  a  pole  near  Altdorff,  near  the  linden  trees,  where 
every  one  must  pass  ;  upon  this  pole,  he  caused  a  hat  to 
be  placed,  and  proclaimed,  that  every  one  in  the  district, 
who  should  pass,  should  bow,  and  take  off  his  bonnet,  and 
show  respect,  as  though  the  King  himself,  or  some  man 
in  his  place,  were  there  present,  under  the  penalty  of  limb 
and  property.  He  also  stationed  guards,  there,  to  watch, 
night  and  day,  that  no  one  should  act  to  the  contrary.  He 
thought  he  would  earn  great  reputation,  if  he  should  suc- 
ceed in  bringing  into  the  lowest  submission,  this  manly, 
gallant,  and  reputable,  people,  which  had  always  been  in 
high  esteem  with  emperors,  kings,  princes,  and  lords. 
This  insolence  galled  the  people,  still  worse  than  the 
building  of  the  castle  ;  yet  they  could  not  yet  oppose  it, 
on  account  of  the  King's  evident  great  anger,  and  mighty 
power,  nor  could  they  hope  to  obtain  mercy  from  him. 

In  those  days,  it  so  happened,  that  landvogt  Gessler, 
(when  he  meant  to  go  from  Uri  to  Kiissnacht  to  his  cas- 
tle,) when  he  rode  through  Schwytz,  over  which  ke  was 
likewise  landvogt,  a  man  lived  at  Steinen,  in  Schwytz, 
wise,  honorable,  and  of  ancient  family,  called  Wernherr 
of  StaufTach,  son  of  Rudolph  of  Stauffach,  who  had  been 
landamman  of  Schwytz.  This  Wernherr  had  built  a  line 
new  house,  this  side  the  brook;  near  Steinen.  When 
the  landvogt  came  to  this  house,  and  Staufiach,  who 
stood  before  it,  received  him  friendly,  and  welcomed  him 
as  his  lord,  the  landvogt  asked  him,  whose  house  this 
was  ?  (though  he  knew  very  well,  for  he  had  said  to  oth- 
i  it  he  would  take  the  house.)  StaufTach  was  aware 
t(jat  he  asked  for  no  good  purpose,  and  that  he  harbored 
enmity  a^ain^t  him,  because  lu>  had  always  maintained, 
that  they  should  not  surrender  to  Austria,  but  remaiu 


DELIVERY  OP   THE   SWISS  DISTRICTS.  81 

with  the  empire  and  their  ancient  liberties,  and  he  had 
great  influence  with  the  country  people.  He,  therefore, 
thus  replied  :  "Sir,  this  house  is  my  lord  the  King's,  arid 
yours,  and  mine."  The  landvogt  said,  "  I  am  regent  in 
the  land,  for  my  master  the  King,  and  will  not  allow 
that  peasants  build  houses,  without  my  permission,  nor 
will  I  permit  that  you  live  so  free,  as  though  yourselves 
were  lords  ;  I  shall  show  you,  that  I  will  prevent  it  :" 
upon  which,  he  rode  on.  These  words  troubled  Stauf- 
fach,  much,  and  pierced  him  to  the  heart.  Now,  he 
was  a  judicious,  careful  man,  and  had  a  wise  and  ingen- 
ious wife,  who  soon  perceived  that  something  oppressed 
his  mind,  yet  he  did  not  open  it  to  her.  Still,  she  was 
desirous  of  knowing  the  cause,  and,  at  length,  he  told  her 
what  the  landvogt  had  said  to  him,  and  that  he  did  not 
expect  any  thing  better,  than  to  lose,  in  time,  his  house, 
home,  goods,  and  every  thing.  When  she  learned  this3 
.she  said,  u  My  dear  husband,  you  know  that  many  gooa 
people,  in  our  country,  complain  of  the  tyranny  of  the 
landvogt,  nor  do  I  doubt  but  many  honest  people,  in  Uri 
and  Unterwalden,  feel  oppressed  by  the  cruel  yoke,  as 
we  daily  hear  that  they  sorely  complain.  Therefore,  it 
would  be  well,  if  some  few,  who  confide  in  one  another, 
should  secretly  advise  together,  and  reflect  how  this  tyran- 
nical power  might  be  thrown  off,  and  assist  and  protect  one 
another's  justice,  and  God  would  not  abandon  you,  but 
would  aid  you  in  bridling  all  this  unfairness,  if  we  implore 
his  aid  from  the  depth  of  our  souls."  She  then  asked  him, 
whether  he  knew  any  one  in  Uri  and  Unterwalden,  whom 
he  might  trust  for  information,  and  to  whom  he  might  con- 
fide his  plans.  He  answered,  "  yes,  I  know,  there,  many 
noble  people,  who  are  attached  to  me,  and  whom  I  may 
trust."  So  Stauffach  thought  within  him,  that  his  wife's  ad- 
vice might  not  be  bad,  followed  it,  and  went  to  Uri,  where 
he  remained  some  days,  to  listen  how  the  common  peo- 
ple were  disposed.  There  he  heard,  from  many  honorable 
persons,  great  complaints  against  the  landvogt.  This  re- 
joiced Stauffach,  for  he  thought  the  plan  might  succeed  ; 
yet  he  trusted  it,  at  this  time,  to  one  reputable  and  wise 
man,  only,  to  Walter  Furst.  The  landamman  yf  Ur" 


82  GREAT  EVENTS. 

praises  the  woman's  advice,  and  informs  him  of  Arnold  oi 
Melchtal,  of  Unterwalden,  who  had  broken  the  finger  of 
the  servant  sent  by  the  landvogt  of  Unterwalden  ;  how  the 
same  continued  to  tarry  in  Uri  ;  but  frequently,  he  would 
go  in  secrecy  to  his  family,  in  Unterwalden,  and  that  he 
was  a  valiant,  judicious  man,  although  young,  but  he  might 
be  safely  trusted  ;  he  would,  by  ingenuity,  deserve  well 
of  this  plan. 

Thus,  he,  too,  was  sent  for,  and  these  three  men, 
Walter  Furst,  of  Uri,  Wernherr  von  Stauffach,  of 
Schwytz,  and  Arnold  von  Melchtal,  of  Unterwalden, 
agreed,  that  they  would  implore  God's  assistance,  and 
would  undertake  this  cause  ;  upon  which,  they  took  an 
oath  to  God  and  his  saints  ;  and  the  following  points  were 
settled,  namely,  that  each  of  them  should  gain  and 
enlist  such  as  he  could  of  his  relations,  and  other  trust- 
worthy people,  for  aid  and  assistance,  in  their  league 
and  sworn  obligations,  to  reconquer  their  ancient  liberty, 
and  to  expel  the  tyrannical  landvogts  and  their  overbear- 
ing dominion,  to  protect  one  another,  by  law  and  right, 
and  to  wager  life  and  limb  for  it.  Yet  that,  nevertheless, 
each  country  should  remain  in  faithful  obedience  to  the  holy 
Roman  empire,  and  every  one  do  his  particular  duty  and 
service,  to  which  he  was  bound,  be  it  to  churches,  lords, 
nobles,  or  commoners,  or  any  other,  in  or  out  of  the  coun- 
try, as  from  ancient  times,  so  far  as  these  did  not,  on 
their  part,  attempt  to  deprive  them  of  their  rights  and  lib- 
erties. 

It  was  likewise  agreed,  that,  if  any  thing  should  happen, 
which  should  require  advice,  that  these  three  should  be 
called  together,  and  meet  at  the  Mytenstein,  which  stands 
in  the  lake  under  Sewlisberg,  at  one  of  the  ends  called 
Rutlin  ;  and,  if  God  should  mercifully  increase  their  un- 
ion, each  one  should  bring  to  that  place,  (Rutlin,)  two, 
three,  or  more,  with  him,  who  had  wisely  and  cautiously, 
se,  taken  the  oath. 

It  was  also  agreed,  that,  by  their  oath,  the  whole  should 
n'MKiin  secret,  until  their  league  should  be  proclaimed  in 
all  three  districts,  at  once. 

Thus  the  league  was  first  formed  and  sworn  to,  by  the 


DELIVERY  OF  THE   SWISS   DISTRICTS.  83 

three  stanch  men  in  Uri,  from  which  the  confederacy 
originated,  and  by  which  the  country  of  Helvetia,  (now 
called  Switzerland,)  has  been  brought  back  to  its  most 
ancient  state  and  liberty.  Upon  this,  Stauffach  hastily 
returned  to  Schwytz,  and^Srni  von  Melchtal,  with  Gun- 
rat  von  Baumgarten,  of  Atzelen,  (who,  likewise,  imme- 
diately took  the  oath  of  the  league,)  went  secretly  togeth- 
er to  Unterwalden,  where  the  one  did  all  he  could,  in 
the  land  above  the  forest,  and  the  other,  below.  This 
happened  in  the  Autumn. 

Now,  those  of  Uri  and  Schwytz  would  have  liked  to 
act  at  once,  which,  however,  was  not  convenient  to  those 
of  Unterwalden,  on  account  of  the  two  fastnesses  in  their 
country,  Sarnen  and  Rotzberg  ;  for  they  feared,  that  these 
fastnesses  could  not  be  conquered  in  such  haste.  But,  if 
the  matter  could  be  delayed  for  eight  weeks,  until  the 
next  new-year's  day,  (A.D.  1308,)  when  it  was  their 
custom  to  carry  a  new-year's-gift  to  their  landvogt,  into 
the  castle  of  Sarnen,  they  would  then  possess  themselves 
of  the  castle,  and,'  at  the  same  time,  give  orders,  that  the 
castle  of  Rotzberg  should  be  conquered  the  same  day  ; 
and,  upon  that  day,  all  should  be  up  in  all  three  districts, 
and  expel  the  tyrannical  vogts,  with  their  servants.  This 
plan  pleased  all ;  it  was  resolved,  therefore,  that  all  should 
remain  secret,  and  nothing  else  should  be  done,  if  no  ir- 
resistible necessity  should  appear  ;  and  every  man,  in 
the  mean  time,  should  suffer  whatever  each  was  capa- 
ble of  suffering,  and  should  keep  still,  and  avoid  all  sus- 
picion. It  was  moreover  agreed,  that,  upon  the  break- 
ing out,  neither  the  vogts,  nor  their  soldiers,  servants, 
nor  retinue,  should  surfer  in  their  lives. 

Upon  this,  on  Sunday  after  Othomari,*  which  was  the 
eighteenth  of  November,  an  honest,  pious  countryman  of 
Uri,  called  William  Tell,  (who  belonged,  also,  to  the 
league,)  passed  at  Altdorff,  several  times,  the  hat  upon 
the  pole,  without  doing  reverence,  as  landvogt  Gessler 
had  commanded.  Of  this,  he  was  informed.  He  there- 
fore, the  next  day,  on  Monday,  ordered  Tell  before  him, 
and  asked  him,  why  he  did  not  obey  his  orders,  and,  to 

*  The  day  Othomari,  is  November  the  sixteenth. 


84  GREAT  EVENTS. 

the  dishonor  of  the  King  or  himself,  would  not  doff  his 
bonnet?  Tell  answered,  "Dear  sir,  it  happened  una- 
wares, and  not  from  contempt  :  pardon  me  ;  if  I  had 
wit,  I  were  not  called  Tell.*  I  ask  for  pardon  ;  it  shall 
not  happen  again."  Now  this  Tell  was  a  renowned  shot 
with  the  crossbow  ;  there  was  hardly  a  better  one  ;  and 
he  had  five  children,  who  were  dear  to  him.  For  these, 
the  landvogt  sent,  and  spoke  :  ct  Tell,  which,  among  these 
children,  is  thy  favorite  ?"  Tell  answers,  "  Sir,  they 
are  all  alike  dear  to  me."  Then,  replied  the  landvogt  ; 
"  Well,  then,  thou  art  a  good  renowned  shot,  as  I  un- 
derstand ;  thou  shalt  prove  thine  art  before  me,  and 
shoot  an  apple  from  the  head  of  one  of  thy  children  ; 
therefore,  take  care  that  thou  hittest  the  apple  ;  for,  if 
thou  dost  not  hit  it  the  first  time,  it  shall  cost  thee  thy 
life."  Tell  was  surprised,  and  begged  the  landvogt,  for 
God's  sake,  not  to  require  him  to  do  this  ;  because  it 
was  unnatural,  that  he  should  shoot  against  his  own  dear 
child  ;  that  he  would  rather  die.  The  landvogt  said, 
ct  Thou  must  do  it,  or  thou,  together  with  thy  child,  must 
die."  Tell  saw,  very  well,  that  it  was  meant  in  earnest, 
and  prayed  fervently,  within,  to  God,  to  protect  him  and 
his  loved  boy.  Then  he  took  his  crossbow,  drew  it, 
placed  the  arrow  upon  it,  and  put  another  behind  his 
jerkin.  The  landvogt  himself  placed  the  apple  upon  the 
head  of  the  child,  which  was  no  older  than  six  years. 
Tell  shot  the  apple  from  off  the  head  of  the  boy,  and 
hurt  him  in  no  manner.  When  this  was  done,  the  land- 
vogt was  astonished.  He  praised  Tell,  on  account  of 
his  skill,  and  asked  him,  why  he  had  another  arrow  in 
his  jerkin  ?  Tell  was  afraid,  and  thought  the  question 
was  asked  for  no  good  purpose  ;  yet  he  wished  io  answer 
plausibly,  and  said  :  "  It  is  the  hunter's  custom."  The 
landvogt  could  perceive  that  Tell  feared  him,  and  said, 
u  Tell  !  come  !  just  tell  me  the  truth,  and  fear  nothing  ; 
thy  life  shall  be  safe  ;  for  the  answer  thou  hast  given,  I  will 


*  Delff  means,  in  ancient  (HTIM.HI,  stupid,  connected  with  the  En- 
glish dull ;  Toll  i*  still  tin-  (i.-nnm  lor  crazy,  insane.  Tell,  then. 
must  have  meant  the  stupid,  which  reminds  us  of  Bnitut>,  whose  name 
has  the  tame  signification 


DELIVERY  OF  THE   SWISS   DISTRICTS.  85 

not  accept ;  there  is  another  meaning  in  this."  There- 
upon, William  Tell  said,  "  Well,  then,  sir,  since  you 
have  warranted  my  life,  I  will  tell  you  the  precise  truth  ; 
that  I  should  have  shot  you  with  the  other  arrow,  and, 
undoubtedly,  should  not  have  missed  you."  When  the 
landvogt  heard  this,  he  replied  :  u  So  be  it  ;  I  have 
guarantied  thy  life  ;  my  word  shall  be  good  ;  but,  since 
1  have  seen  thy  malice  against  me,  I  will  have  thee  taken 
to  a  place,  where  thou  shall  lie  without  seeing  sun  or 
moon  evermore  ;  so  that  I  be  sale  against  thee."  He 
ordered  his  men  to  take  him  and  carry  him,  tied,  to 
Fliilen.  He,  himself,  went  with  them,  and  took  T ell's 
shooting  tackle, — quiver,  arrow,  and  bow,  along  with  him  ; 
he  meant  to  keep  it  for  himself.  Thus  the  landvogt,  his 
servants,  and  Tell  in  fetters,  went  into  the  same  boat. 
They  meant  to  go  to  Brunnen,  whence  Tell  was  to  go, 
by  land,  through  Schwytz,  to  the  landvogt's  castle,  called 
Kussnach,  to  end  there  his  life,  in  a  dark  tower.  His 
bow,  arrow,  and  other  things,  were  placed  on  the  board, 
near  the  tiller. 

When  they  came  upon  the  lake,  and  had  sailed  up  as 
far  as  Achsen,  the  Corner,  God  sent  a  terrible  storm,  that 
all  of  them  expected  miserably  to  be  drowned.  Now 
Tell  was  a  strong  man,  well  skilled  upon  the  water  ;  and 
one  of  the  servants  said  to  the  landvogt,  "  Sir,  you  see 
your  and  our  danger  and  distress  of  life,  and  that  the  guide 
of  the  vessel  is  full  of  fear,  and  not  a  thorough  hand  at 
sailing  :  Tell,  however,  is  a  powerful  man,  and  knows 
how  to  navigate  ;  we  should  make  use  of  him  in  this  dis- 
tress." The  landvogt  was  greatly  agitated  by  the  dangers 
of  the  water,  and  spoke  thus  to  Tell  :  "  If  thou  wouldst 
save  us  from  these  perils,  I  would  loosen  thy  fetters." 
Tell  answered,  "  Yes,  sir,  I  trust,  with  God's  aid,  to  be 
able  to  save  ourselves."  He  was  loosened,  stood  at  the 
rudder,  and  sailed  honestly  along  ;  yet  he  looked,  all  the 
time,  askaunt,  upon  the  bow  and  arrow,  which  were  lying 
near  him,  while  he  was  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to  leap 
out  of  the  boat.  And  when  he  came  near  an  even  place, 
(which,  since,  has  received  the  name  of  Tell's  plateau, 
and  a  chapel  has  been  built  there,)  he  thought  that  he 

8  Q.   E, 


86  GREAT  EVENTS. 

might  leap  on  shore,  and  run  away.  So  he  cried  to  the 
boatmen,  that  they  should  pull  well,  until  they  were  in 
front  of  that  flat  place,  where  they  would  be  out  of  dan- 
ger. And,  when  he  was  there,  he  pressed  the  tiller  with 
much  power,  (as  he  was  a  man  of  great  strength,)  grasp- 
ed his  bow,  and  leaped  on  shore,  pushing  back  the  boat, 
and  leaving  them  to  themselves  upon  the  waves.  Tell 
ran  toward  the  mountains,  (for  no  snow  had  fallen  yet,) 
through  Morsath,  through  the  land  Schwytz,  as  far  as  the 
height,  near  the  road  between  Art  and  Kussnach,  where 
there  is  a  hollow  road,  and  copse  wood  above.  In  this, 
he  lay  hidden,  for  he  knew  that  the  landvogt  would  pass 
it,  on  horseback,  to  go  to  his  castle  Kussnach. 

The  landvogt  and  his  people  arrived  at  Brunnen,  after 
much  toil  and  danger  on  the  lake,  rode  through  Schwytz, 
and,  when  they  approached  the  mentioned  hollow  road, 
Tell  heard  sundry  plans  of  the  landvogt  against  him.  He, 
however,  had  drawn  his  bow,  and  pierced  the  landvogt 
with  an  arrow,  so  that  he  fell  from  the  horse,  dead. 

Upon  this,  Tell  ran  back  ;  it  was  late,  and  night  began 
to  set  in.  On  his  flight,  he  informed  Stauffacher,  at 
Steinen,  of  the  whole  transaction,  as  it  had  happened. 
During  the  night,  he  went  on  toward  Brunnen,  where  he 
was  taken,  by  one  who  was  likewise  in  the  league,  in  a 
little  boat,  to  Uri,  where  he  also  arrived,  in  the  night  which 
was  then  long.  He  kept  himself  concealed,  but  he  in- 
formed Walter  Furst  and  other  confederates,  how  he  had 
shot  the  landvogt,  which  was  likewise  communicated  to 
the  confederates  in  Unterwalden,  secretly  and  quickly. 

At  the  spot  of  the  hollow  way,  where  William  Tell 
slew  the  landvogt,  has  been  since  built  a  chapel,  which 
stands  to  this  day.  It  was  favorable  to  the  cause,  that 
the  King,  at  that  time,  was  in  Lower  Austria,  waiting 
for  a  proper  opportunity  to  appoint  a  new  landvogt. 

Anno  Domini,  1308,  on  the  new-year's  day,  or  festi- 
val of  the  circumcision  of  Christ  our  Lord,  the  people 
of  Unterwalden,  who  had  taken  the  oath  of  the  league 
already  mentioned,  considered  how  they  could  take  the 
fastnesses  of  Sarnen  and  Rot/bonr,  which  were  very 
ftrong.  There  was,  in  the  castle  of  Rotzberg,  (which  is 


DELIVERY   OF  THE   SWISS   DISTRICTS.  87 

situated  below  the  Kernwald,  between  Stans  and  Oedwil, 
upon  a  high  hill,)  a  servant  girl,  who  was  betrothed  to  a 
man  of  Stans,  who  belonged  to  the  league.  They  had 
agreed,  that  he  should  visit  her  in  the  night  of  new-year's 
eve,  about  midnight,  and  that  she  should  let  down,  from 
her  window,  a  cord  which  he  showed  her.  The  maiden 
was  glad,  for  she  loved  the  youth.  When  the  night  ar- 
rived, he  secretly  took  twenty  confederates  with  him. 
They  stole  to  the  wall  of  the  castle,  that  the  maiden  should 
not  see  them.  She  bound  the  rope  to  the  window  sill, 
and  let  it  down  to  the  ground.  The  youth  climbed  up 
into  the  castle,  and  went  with  the  maiden  into  a  room,  to 
converse  with  her,  an  hour  or  two.  In  the  mean  time, 
one  of  the  confederates,  after  another,  climbed  up  the 
rope,  until  all  were  in  the  castle.  Quickly  they  took  the 
commander  and  four  of  his  people,  prisoners,  together 
with  the  servants,  kept  them  in  the  castle,  and  allowed 
no  one  to  go  out  until  noon,  so  that  no  hue  and  cry  should 
be  given,  until  the  castle  of  Sarnen  were  likewise  taken. 
But  they  sent  immediately  one  of  their  own  number  se- 
cretly, to  Stans,  to  inform  the  confederates,  there,  that 
Rotzberg  was  in  their  power,  that  they  might  quickly  in- 
form the  confederates  above  the  forest. 

Now  the  landvogt  von  Landenberg,  who  lived  in  the 
castle  of  Sarnen,  above  the  forest,  had,  by  force,  accus- 
tomed the  people  to  bring  him  presents  on  new-year's  day, 
one  a  couple  of  fowls,  another  a  capon,  a  hare,  a  kid,  a 
lamb,  a  calf,  or  other  thing,  according  as  every  one  could 
afford  it,  which  they  were  obliged  to  carry  into  the  castle. 
About  fifty  confederates,  therefore,  had  resolved,  that 
thirty  of  them  should,  well-armed,  hide  themselves,  be- 
fore the  break  of  day,  under  the  castle,  below  the  mill, 
in  the  elder- wood,  and  the  other  twenty  should  cut  and 
sharpen  sticks,  so  that  pointed  irons  might  be  fixed  to 
them,  and  each  should  carry  an  iron  with  him,  in  the 
bosom  of  his  dress.  These  should  carry  the  new-year's 
presents  into  the  castle,  (for  no  one  was  allowed  to  enter 
it  with  arms,)  and  when  they  were  all  entered,  one  of 
them  should  blow  the  horn.  Upon  this,  the  twenty  should 
quickly  fix  the  iron,  and  take  possession  of  the  gate  ;  and 


88  GREAT   EVENTS. 

so  soon  SB  those  in  the  elder-wood  should  hear  the  horn, 
they  should  hasten  up  to  the  castle  gate,  to  aid  the  oth- 
ers. Now,  when  the  twenty  men  went  with  the  presents 
to  the  castle,  the  landvogt  came  out,  with  two  compan- 
ions, to  go  to  church,  for  it  was  morning,  at  the  time  the 
people  go  to  the  church  ;  and,  when  he  saw  that  all  were 
unarmed,  he  was  not  afraid,  trusting  that  they  were  bring- 
ing presents,  and  told  them,  to  carry  them  into  the  castle, 
and  he  went  on,  into  the  church. 

Soon  after,  the  horn  was  heard,  and  the  castle  was  ta- 
ken, in  the  mentioned  manner  ;  all  the  guards  and  other 
people  were  taken  prisoners  ;  all  the  furniture  was  thrown 
out,  and  the  castle  was  razed.  In  the  same  manner  was 
Rotzberg  destroyed.  And  when  the  landvogt  heard  the 
same,  in  the  church,  with  his  servants,  they  meant  to  take 
flight  over  the  mountain,  but  could  not,  on  account  of 
the  snow.  They  then  fled  toward  Alpnach,  down  to 
Lucerne.  They  were  seen,  but  allowred  to  proceed  with- 
out molestation,  as  had  been  agreed  ;  so  the  castle-guards 
and  servants  of  Sarnen  and  Rotzberg  were  allowed  to 
draw  off,  with  all  their  property,  and  no  harm  was  done 
them,  neither  to  their  limbs  nor  property,  only  they  were 
obliged  to  leave  the  land.  And  when  this  was  done,  all 
the  people,  noble  and  common,  young  and  old,  above  and 
below  the  Kernwald,  swore  a  mutual  oath,  that  they 
would  advise  and  aid  one  another  against  the  tyranny. 

At  the  same  time,  those  of  Uri  likewise  cleared  their 
Country,  and  destroyed  the  castle  which  had  been  begun, 
which  the  tyrant  Oessler  would  have  called,  c  Force  Uri 
under  the  Stick  ;'  and  there,  likewise,  all  swore,  noble 
and  common,  to  help  and  protect  one  another.  In  the 
same  manner,  things  proceeded  in  Schwytz.  There, 
Wernherr  of  StaufTach,  and  the  confederates,  destroyed 
the  castle  of  Lowers  in  the  Lower  Lake.  It  was  not  in 
good  condition  ;  nor  mounted.  It  had  been  used  as  a 
prison,  in  which  to  confine  those  who  were  tried  for  life. 
Tin-  people,  there,  took  the  same  oath.  All  this  happen- 
ed in  one  day,  on  new-year's  day  ;  that  was  on  a  Mon- 
day, Anno  Domini,  1308,  as  had  been  before  agreed 
upon. 


BATTLE  AT   SEMPACH.  89 


THE  BATTLE  AT   SEMPACH,  IN  1386 

BY  JOHANNES  VON  MULLER. 

JOHN  VON  MULLER  was  born  in  1752,  at  Schaffhau- 
sen,  in  Switzerland,  and  died  in  1808.  The  first  volume 
of  his  History  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy,  from  which  the 
following  account  of  the  battle  of  Sernpach  has  been  trans- 
lated, appeared  in  1780.  This  battle  was  fought  on  the 
ninth  of  July,  1386,  between  the  confederated  Swiss  on 
the  one  side,  and  Austria  on  the  other  ;  Austria  making 
an  obstinate  effort  to  maintain  her  power  in  Switzerland 
See  History  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy,  Vol.  ii.  p.  431. 

THE  Duke,  [of  Austria,]  leaving  the  Stein,  at  Baden, 
crossed  the  Riiss,  and  marched  through  the  free  baili- 
wicks, to  Argan,  and  thence  through  Sursee,  toward  Sem- 
pach.  This  little  town  is  situated  about  three  leagues' 
distance  from  Lucerne,  at  the  head  of  a  lake  of  two 
leagues  in  length,  bordered  with  fertile  and  picturesque 
meadows.  Above  the  meadows,  lay  cornfields  ;  and  above 
these,  rose  a  wood.  This  wood  was  occupied  by  the 
troops  of  the  confederates. 

On  the  ninth  of  July,  they  saw  the  enemy,  a  numerous 
force,  well  mounted,  and  in  complete  armor.  The  vas- 
sals were  drawn  up  under  their  respective  barons  ;  the 
people  of  each  town  under  their  avoyer  ;  and  the  compa- 
nies of  every  noble  of  the  different  countries,  each  under 
the  banner  of  its  country.  The  Lanclsknechts,  vassals,  and 
mercenaries,  served  as  infantry.  There  were  no  field- 
pieces  ;  though  some  heavy  blunderbusses  were  slowly  ad- 
vancing, to  be  used  in  the  siege  of  Sempach.  There  were 
seen  the  lords  of  Argan,  the  bailiffs  of  Austria,  authors  of 
the  war  ;  Hermann  Grimm  of  Grunenberg,  from  whom 
Rotenburg  had  been  wrested  ;  Thuring  and  John  of  Hall- 
wyl,  zealous,  above  others,  for  the  house  of  Austria,  in 
peace  and  war.  There  were  the  Gesslers,  cherishing  an 
inborn  hatred  against  Switzerland  ;  Egloff  and  Ulrich  of 
8* 


90  GREAT  EVENTS. 

Ems,  the  first,  the  noblest  knight  in  the  wars  of  his  time  , 
Kraft  of  Lichtenstein,  with  many  distinguished  lords  from 
Inner  Austria,  under  the  banner  of  the  arch-duchy,  which 
was  borne  by  the  Lord  Henry  of  Escheloh  ;  Rudolph, 
Count  of  Sulz  ;  Count  John  of  Furstenberg  ;  Montfau- 
con  of  Mumpelgard,  and  many  lords  of  Upper  Burgun- 
dy. Above  all  the  army,  shone  Duke  Leopold  of  Aus- 
tria, himself,  now  in  the  thirty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  and 
in  the  pride  of  manly  beauty.  Magnanimous,  full  of  cour- 
age and  heroic  fire,  and  adorned  with  the  laurels  of  many 
a  victory,  he  burned  with  revenge,  and  thirsted  for  battle. 
It  was  the  time  of  the  harvest ;  the  Duke's  people  were 
reaping  the  corn  ;  the  nobles  galloping  up  to  the  walls  [of 
Sempach]  to  taunt  the  burghers,  with  a  firm  resolution  to 
beat  the  Swiss  peasants  with  their  own  knightly  force,  un- 
aided by  the  infantry.  When  the  Duke  espied  the  enemy  in 
the  upland,  he  forgot  (if,  indeed,  he  had  ever  known)  that 
cavalry  can  attack  with  more  effect  upon  an  ascent,  than 
on  a  declivity  ;  and  he  believed  it  necessary  to  dispense 
with  cavalry,  although  the  nobles,  encumbered  with  their 
heavy  armor,  were  ill  adapted  to  act  on  foot.  Well- 
drilled  cavalry  has  often,  by  a  violent  and  rapid  shock, 
turned  the  flank  of  bodies  of  foot,  broken  and  beaten 
them  ;  but  never  has  heavy-armed  infantry  withstood  an 
attack  of  infantry  made  from  higher  ground.  The  Duke 
commanded  the  nobles  to  form  in  the  closest  order  ;  and 
to  this  strong  phalanx  he  gave  an  impenetrable  and  terri- 
ble front  by  the  lances,  which  were  of  such  length,  that 
even  those  of  the  fourth  line  reached  the  front.  This 
arrangement  was  almost  the  same  as  that  which  his  grand- 
father had  employed,  successfully,  against  Bavarian  cav- 
alry, in  the  battle  at  the  Hasenbiihel.  Lord  John  of 
Ochsenstein,  under  the  Duke  himself,  had  command  of 
this  phalanx  ;  while  Reinhard  of  Wehingen,  a  man  well 
skilled  in  the  affairs  of  peace  and  war,  and  high  in  favor 
of  the  Duke,  commanded  the  shooters.  A  body  of  four- 
!'•<'!)  hundred  men,  commanded  by  Frederick  of  Zollern, 
ihf  black  Count,  and  John  of  Oberkirch,  knight,  and  com- 
posing, usually,  the  van,  was  on  this  day  placed,  by  the 
Duke,  in  the  rear  ;  for  he  was  anxious  that  the  field 


BATTLE  AT   SEMPACII.  91 

should  be  clear  before  the  infuriated  nobles,  whom  he 
commanded  in  person.  In  thus  assuming  a  defensive 
position,  he  was  taking,  with  superior  numbers,  a  course 
more  befitting  the  inferior  force  ;  but  probably  he  was  led 
to  fight  on  foot,  by  an  opinion  of  the  knights  and  nobles 
of  that  age,  that  he  who  is  victorious  in  any  struggle,  by 
superiority  of  equipments  or  by  stratagem,  leaves  the 
fairest  prize  of  valor  undecided.  They  considered  such 
advantage  dishonorable  ;  and  Leopold  himself  was  rather 
an  ornament  of  a  gallant  chivalry,  through  his  noble  vir- 
tues, than  a  great  general,  through  his  extensive  knowledge 
of  the  art  of  war. 

When  John  of  Hasenberg,  baron,  a  gray-haired  war- 
rior, who  had  seen  the  enemy's  position  and  order,  warn- 
ed the  exasperated  nobility,  that  "vanity  leads  to  no  good 
end,  and  that  it  would  be  well  to  send  word  to  Hans  of 
Bonstetten,  that  he  should  hasten  to  join  them,"  they 
considered  his  sage  counsel  to  be  ignoble.  So,  when 
others  made  timely  propositions  to  the  Duke  himself,  and 
warned  him,  u  that  battle-fields  are  the  native  soil  of  un- 
foreseen emergencies  ;  that  it  was  befitting  a  prince,  to 
watch  for  the  general  safety,  and  themselves,  to  fight  for 
the  common  cause  ;  and  that  it  would  be  vastly  more  ru- 
inous to  the  army  to  lose  its  head,  than  some  of  its  mem- 
bers," he  replied,  at  first,  with  a  smile,  but,  at  length, 
impatiently,  "  Shall  Leopold  look  on,  from  a  distance, 
and  see  his  knights  die  for  him  ?  Here,  in  my  country, 
for  my  people,  with  you,  will  I  conquer  or  perish." 

The  confederates  stood  on  the  wood-covered  declivity. 
So  long  as  the  knights  were  mounted,  they  believed  it 
difficult  to  resist  their  shock  in  the  plain,  and  safer  to  ex- 
pect the  attack  in  their  position,  which  they  believed  to 
be  advantageous.  If  they  were  victorious,  they  hoped 
that  the  victory,  by  the  encouragement  it  would  afford 
the  nation,  would  prove  decisive  of  the  whole  war ;  death 
they  considered  as  a  path  to  undying  glory,  and  as  an  in- 
centive to  others,  to  avenge  their  loss  upon  the  enemy. 
When  the  knights  had  dismounted,  the  confederates 
marched  from  out  the  wood  down  into  the  plain  ;  for 
they  feared  some  stratagem,  or  sudden  manoeuvre,  of  the 


92  GREAT   EVENTS. 

more  numerous  force,  in  the  country  sheltered  by  the 
wood.  They  stood  in  narrow  files,  with  short  weapons, 
(four  hundred  men  of  Lucerne,  nine  hundred  from  the 
three  forest  districts,  and  about  a  hundred  from  Glarn, 
Zug,  Gersan,  Entlibuch,  and  Rotenburg,)  under  their  re- 
spective banners,  commanded  by  the  avoyer  of  the  town 
of  Lucerne,  and  under  the  landamman  of  each  valley. 
Some  bore  the  halberds,  with  which  their  ancestors  had 
fought  at  Morgarten,  [December  6,  1315  ;]  some  had 
small  boards,  fastened  to  their  left  arms,  instead  of  shields. 
To  experienced  warriors,  their  courage  was  apparent. 
They  knelt  down,  and  prayed  to  God,  according  to  their 
ancient  custom.  The  nobles  closed  their  ^helmets  ;  the 
Duke  created  knights.  The  sun  stood  high  ;  the  day 
was  sultry. 

The  Swiss,  after  their  prayer,  ran,  at  full  speed,  across 
the  field,  against  the  enemy,  with  loud  and  animating  war 
cry,  and  in  the  hope  to  break  through  the  hostile  ranks, 
and  then  to  fight  right  and  left,  as  they  best  might.  But 
they  were  received  by  the  range  of  shields,  as  by  a  wall, 
and  by  the  projecting  lances,  as  by  a  forest  of  iron  thorns. 
The  main  body  of  the  men  of  Lucerne  fought  with  im- 
patient fury,  and  strove  to  break  a  passage  between  the 
lances,  up  to  those  who  held  them.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  enemy,  with  a  fearful  clang,  moved  on  in  wide-ex- 
tended lines,  intending  to  form  a  crescent,  by  which  they 
thought  to  turn  the  flank  of  the  Swiss.  At  this  period,  the 
municipal  banner  of  Lucerne  appeared,  for  some  time,  in 
peril,  because  Petermann  of  Gundoldingen,  knight,  avoyer 
of  Lucerne,  had  fallen,  severely  wounded,  and  Henry  of 
Moos,  late  avoyer,  and  Stephen  of  Sillinen,  lord  of  Silli- 
nen,  and  Kussnacht,  his  brother-in-law,  had  perished,  with 
many  other  brave  men.  Then  Antony  of  Port,  a  native 
of  Milan,  but  residing  at  Fliielen,  in  the  country  of  Uri, 
cried,  with  a  loud  voice,  "  Strike  at  the  shafts,  for  they 
an-  hollow."  This,  the  foremost  rank  did,  with  great  arid 
powerful  exertions  ;  and  some  shafts  wrre  shivered,  but 
were  immediately  replaced  by  those  behind.  Antony 
of  Port  foil.  The  hostile  lines,  from  the  nature  of  theii 
arms,  and  from  their  want  of  practice,  were  too  unwieldy 


BATTLE  AT   SEMPACH.  93 

to  form  a  crescent,  but,  in  every  other  respect,  they  stood 
unbroken  and  firm.  Sixty  Swiss  had  already  been  slain. 
They  feared  the  sudden  effect  of  some  unperceived  move- 
ment by  the  van-guard  from  the  rear,  or  of  some  sur- 
prise by  the  troops  of  Bonstetten. 

This  moment  of  delay  and  indecision  was  terminat- 
ed by  a  man  from  the  country  of  Unterwalden,  Arnold 
Strutthan  of  Winkelried,  knight.  He  said  to  his  com- 
panions, "  I'll  make  a  lane  for  you  :"  leaped  from  out  the 
ranks,  called,  with  a  loud  voice,  "  take  care  of  my  wife 
and  children  ;  faithful,  dear  confederates,  remember  my 
race  ;"  rushed  upon  the  enemy,  grasped  some  lances 
with  his  hands,  buried  them  in  his  breast,  and  being  a 
very  tall  and  strong  man,  he  pressed  them  with  him  to 
the  ground,  as  he' sank  down.  Instantly,  his  companions 
threw  themselves  over  his  body  ;  and  all  the  hosts  of  the 
confederates,  in  succession,  pressed  on  with  their  utmost 
force.  The  lines  of  the  astonished  enemy  pressed  one 
upon  another,  to  receive  them  ;  whereby,  through  fear, 
haste,  horror,  and  heat,  many  lords,  wounded  in  their 
armor,  were  suffocated  ;  while  large  bands,  hastening 
from  the  forest,  strengthened  the  forces  of  the  Swiss. 

First,  fell  Frederick,  the  bastard  of  Brandis,  a  strong 
man,  an  implacable  foe  ;  himself,  singly,  as  terrible  as  twen- 
ty ordinary  men.  Near  him,  fell  Friesshard,  called  the 
tall,  who  had  vaunted,  that  he,  alone,  would  stand  against 
the  confederates.  The  fortune  of  the  day  turned.  The 
servants  of  the  nobles,  who  were  stationed  near  the  bag- 
gage, when  they  saw  this,  mounted,  to  save  their  lives  by 
flight.  In  the  mean  time,  the  chief  banner  of  Austria,  in 
the  hand  of  lord  Henry  of  Eschenloh,  sunk,  and  Ulrich 
of  Oitenburg  fell  upon  the  banner  of  Tyrol.  The  for- 
mer was  saved  by  Ulrich  of  Aarburg,  knight  ;  he  held 
it  aloft,  and  resisted  bravely,  yet  in  vain,  for  he  fell, 
wounded,  and  crying,  with  his  last  breath,  c  Retta,  Aus- 
tria, Retta.'*  Duke  Leopold  now  broke  through  the 
press,  and  received  the  banner  from  his  dying  hand  ; 
once  more  it  appeared,  floating  above  the  hosts,  in  the 
hand  of  the  Prince,  and  steeped  in  blood.  But  many  a 
*  Save  !  Austria,  save  ! 


94  GREAT  EVENTS. 

liegeman  surrounded  him,  and  prayed  for  his  life.  Al- 
ready had  perished  the  banner  of  the  Counts  of  Hapsburg, 
in  the  hand  of  lord  David  of  Junkerberg.  Thuring  of 
Hallvvyi  lay  dead,  with  his  bastard,  and  his  uncle  John  ; 
there,  fell  the  lords  of  Lichtenstein,  of  Morsburg,  four 
brothers  ;  Hermann  of  Escheng,  between  his  two  sons  ; 
Margrave  Otto  of  Hochberg ;  lord  Otho  of  Paris,  counsel- 
lor of  the  Duke  ;  Count  Walleram  of  Thierstein  ;  Count 
Peter  of  Aarberg  ;  and  the  noble  Knight  Albert  of  Mulli- 
nen,  whom  the  Duke  greatly  loved.  Then  Leopold,  say- 
ing, u  Too  many  a  count  and  lord  has  gone  with  me 
to  death  ;  let  me  die  an  honorable  death  with  them,"  es- 
caped his  friends,  who  were  overwhelmed  by  grief  and 
despair,  plunged  into  the  hostile  hosts,  and  sought  his 
death.  The  enemy  had  broken  in,  from  all  sides  ;  it  was 
with  great  difficulty  that  the  avoyers  of  Argan  held  up 
their  banners.  In  the  throng  of  battle,  the  Duke  was 
struck  to  the  ground  ;  but  struggled  eagerly  to  raise  him- 
self, again,  (encumbered,  as  he  was,  with  his  heavy  armor,) 
because  he  would  not  perish  unrevenged.  A  common  sol- 
dier, from  Schwytz,  found  him  in  this  struggle.  The  help- 
less Leopold  exclaimed,  u  lam  the  Prince  of  Austria." 
This  the  man  did  not  hear,  or  did  not  believe  ;  or  it  ap- 
peared to  him,  that  battle  levels  all  dignities.  When  the 
Duke,  from  the  effect  of  his  wound,  had  soon  given  up 
the  ghost,  Martin  Malterer,  who  carried  the  banner  of  Frey- 
burg,  chanced  to  perceive  the  body,  in  the  Breisgau  ;  he 
stood  appalled  ;  the  banner  dropped  from  his  hand ;  he 
threw  himself  upon  the  corpse  of  Leopold,  that  it  might 
not  be  soiled  nor  mangled,  by  friend  or  enemy  ;  thus  he 
awaited,  and  here  found  his  death.  At  this  spot,  fought, 
until  death,  Rudolph  de  Harrass,  lord  of  Schonau, 
master  of  the  armor  to  the  Duke. 

The  eyes  of  the  infantry  sought  for  the  Prince,  but  in 
vain  ;  when,  suddenly,  the  whole  force  of  Austria  betook 
themselves  to  flight.  All  the  nobles  cried,  "  Our  horses  ; 
liriir^  our  horses  !"  A  distant  cloud  of  dust  indistinctly 
pointed  out  ilir  rn;ul,  nlon^  which,  a  faithless  count,  and, 
perhaps,  Hanns  of  Oberkirch,  had  long  since  carried 
away  the  horses,  in  their  own  flight.  Encumbered  with 


BATTLE  AT   SEMPACH.  95 

heavy  armor,  oppressed  with  heat,  exhausted  by  toil  and 
thirst,  nothing  remained  for  them,  but  to  revenge  their 
Prince,  and,  that  every  one  should  sell  his  life,  as  dearly 
as  he  might,  though  he  could  not  save  it.  Here,  the  no- 
ble Knight  of  Ems  worthily  ended  his  heroic  career. 
Here,  Lord  Otto  Truchsen,  of  Waldburgan,  met  an  hon- 
orable death,  and  Ysni  inherited  complete  freedom.  He 
had  come  hither,  from  Ysni,  his  own  town,  in  Allgan, 
and  promised  it  entire  freedom,  upon  his  death,  giving  up 
all  power,  whatsoever,  in  consideration  of  eight  thousand 
pounds  of  pence,  which  sum  he  required  to  pay  his  sol- 
diers. On  the  side  of  the  confederates,  fell  Conrad, 
Landamman  of  Uri  ;  Attenghansen,  Knight,  Sigrist  of 
Tiessebach,  Landamman  of  the  people  of  Unterwalden, 
above  the  Kernwald,  and  Conrad  Griininger,  of  Glaris,  a 
brave  man,  (in  honor  of  whom  the  men  of  Schwytz  gave 
the  privilege  of  citizenship  to  his  son.)  In  the  mean 
time,  Peterrnann  of  Gundoldingen,  pierced  with  many 
wounds,  was  bleeding  to  death  ;  one  of  the  men  of  Lu- 
cerne hastened  to  the  place  where  he  was  dying,  to  re- 
ceive his  last  will  ;  the  avoyer,  far  from  having  a  thought 
of  his  private  affairs,  gave  this  answer  :  "  Tell  our  fellow 
citizens,  that  they  shall  never  allow  an  avoyer  to  remain 
longer  than  a  year  in  office  ;  that  this  is  the  advice  of 
Gundoldingen,  arid  that  he  wishes  them  a  happy  govern- 
ment and  victory."  With  these  words,  he  breathed  his 
last. 

Of  the  enemy,  moreover,  fell  the  Lord  of  Hasenburg, 
not  saved  by  having  foreseen  disaster;  and,  with  him,  John 
of  Ochsenstein,  who  had  derided  his  prudence  ;  Siegfried, 
of  the  house  of  Erloch,  who  was  not  permitted  to  fight, 
successfully,  against  liberty  ;  three  of  the  name  of  Hen- 
dorf,  and  Albert  of  Hohenrechberg,  whose  hatred  against 
the  victors  descended  to  his  great-grandchildren.  Gott- 
fried Miiller  fell,  also,  Burkard  Gessner,  of  Breisach, 
Hatstatt,  Rathsamhausen,  three  of  the  name  of  Berenfels, 
and  Flachsland  ;  and  some,  also,  of  the  Italian  nobility, 
Castelnan,  Hanns  of  Vauxmarcus,  and  Richard  of  Mum- 
pelgard.  A  man  of  Gersau,  seeing  the  banner  of  Ho- 
henzollern  floating,  hastened  and  carried  away  this  glorious 


96  GREAT   EVENTS. 

prize.  All  the  lords  of  the  house  of  Rheinach  met 
death,  together  ;  the  youthful  Hemmann  alone  remaining, 
to  continue  (like  Quintus  Fabius*)  that  ancient  family. 
Hemmann,  when  the  knights  dismounted,  and  cut  the 
long  points  from  their  shoes,  had  wounded  himself  in  his 
too  great  haste,  and,  full  of  discontent,  had  been  carried 
behind  the  lines.  The  municipal  banner  of  Schaffhausen 
was  at  length  lost,  which  had  been  successively  borne  and 
defended  by  Drethelm,  Knight,  avoyer  of  the  town,  by 
Harms  of  Randegh,  bailiff  of  the  Duke,  by  the  nobles 
Im-Thurm,  by  two  of  the  name  of  Stokar,  by  Hanns  of 
Tulach,  (till  now,  the  happy  father  often  children,)  and 
by  twenty-eight  other  nobles  or  burghers,  by  all  of  them 
until  death.  The  avoyer  of  Aaran  fell,  with  fourteen  of 
his  fellow-citizens  ;  Werner  of  Lo,  banner-master,  with 
seven  others  of  Lenzburg.  The  people  of  Mellingen,  of 
their  own  accord,  and  with  honest  purpose,  had  sent  thanks 
to  the  unfortunate  Prince,  for  the  privileges,  granted  in 
order  to  assist  them,  after  a  destructive  fire.  The  burgh- 
ers of  Bremgarten  were  terribly  ernbrued  with  the  ene- 
my's blood,  so  that  the  house  of  Austria  has  commemo- 
rated such  faithfulness  by  a  change  of  the  municipal  col- 
ors, f  After  twelve  other  men  of  Zofingen,  fell  also  their 
avoyer,  Nicholas  Gutt,  regardless  of  his  own  death,  but 
much  concerned  about  the  banner  which  the  citizens  of 
Zofingen  had  confided  to  his  hand.  That  no  hostile  com- 
munity should  have  reason  to  boast  of  its  possession, 
he  tore  it  into  pieces,  and  was  found  among  the  dead, 
the  staff  fast  locked  between  his  teeth.  From  that  time, 
the  citizens  made  their  avoyers  swear,  u  to  guard  the  town 
banner,  even  as  did  the  avoyer,  Nicholas  Gutt."  The 
number  of  counts,  lords,  and  knights,  who  perished,  was 
six  hundred  and  fifty-six  ;  so  that  the  brilliancy  of  the 
princely  Courts  was  extinguished  for  many  years,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  the  country  said,  that  God  had  sat  in 

*  The  Family  of  the  Fahii  was  a  celebrated  one  in  ancien  Rome. 
At  the  battle  of  Crernera,  B.  C.  476,  all  of  the  Fabii  were  cut  off,  ex- 
cept Quintus  Fabius. 

t  Austria  gave  the  magistrates  a  white  gown  with  red  sleeves,  with 
the  same  colon  in  other  parU  of  the  dress. 


BATTLE  AT   SEMPACH.  97 

judgement  upon  the  arrogant  spite  of  the  nobles.  After 
the  fall  of  nearly  all  the  officers,  on  both  sides,  the  wrath 
of  the  victors  was  at  length  overcome,  by  their  bloody 
toil,  and  the  heat  of  the  day  ;  and  the  Austrians,  undis- 
turbed, indulged  the  desire  of  life,  but  the  Swiss,  seeing 
themselves  masters  of  the  field,  the  desire  of  booty. 
Such  is  the  end  of  the  great  day  of  the  battle  at  Sempach, 
in  which  Arnold  Strutthan,  of  Winkelried,  at  the  pries 
of  his  own  life,  saved  the  flower  of  the  Swiss  from  death, 
and  his  country  from  extreme  danger.  The  enemy,  in- 
deed, suffered  from  their  awkward  and  unskilful  order  of 
battle,  their  want  of  practice  in  fighting  on  foot  ;  their 
ignorant  contempt  of  their  adversary  ;  and  the  impetuous 
character  of  chivalric  valor.  Our  fathers  knew  the 
country,  and  made  use  of  the  advantages,  which  Swit- 
zerland, to  this  day,  offers,  in  a  thousand  ways.  They 
were  inferior,  it  is  true,  in  some  points  of  drilling  ;  their 
mode  of  warfare  was,  as  were  their  souls,  simple,  great, 
and  strong  ;  were  they  checked  in  their  course  by  the 
enemy's  discipline,  some  extraordinary  deed,  as  that  at 
Sempach,  aided  them  ;  some  deed  suggested  by  their 
heroic  souls,  and  executed  by  their  sound  bodies.  With 
a  mind  like  that  of  Winkelried,  and  with  such  infantry, 
miracles  of  bravery  would  have  been  performed,  even  if 
'the  object  had  been  to  capture  well-served  artillery,  or  to 
run  under  its  fire.  For  all  arms,  of  whatever  form,  may 
be  over-mastered,  by  a  clear  intellect  and  unconquerable 
souls.  Therefore,  according  to  the  opinions  of  excellent 
soldiers  of  our  own  times,  the  result  of  a  struggle  in  de- 
fence of  our  liberty  and  confederacy,  would  not  be  differ- 
ent, if  only  our  souls  are  still  the  same. 

That  same  day,  the  message  of  the  country's  salva- 
tion was  sent  to  Zurich,  Bern,  Zug,  and  Glaris.  The  day 
after  the  battle,  when  a  troop  of  fugitives  had  been  over- 
taken, and  put  to  the  sword  in  Sursee,  the  Swiss  granted 
an  armistice,  for  burying  the  dead.  The  body  of  the 
Prince,  with  those  of  sixty  lords  and  knights,  were  car- 
ried into  the  convent  of  Konigsfelden  ;  he  was  deposited 
in  the  marble  tomb,  where  rests  Queen  Agnes,  and  others 
of  the  house.  The  lords  of  Aargan  were  laid  in  the 
9  G.  E. 


98  GREAT   EVENTS. 

graves  of  their  ancestors  ;  all  the  rest  were  interred  in 
large  fosses  ;  two  hundred  bodies  of  the  confederates  were 
buried  at  Lucerne.  A  perpetual  anniversary,  for  all 
future  ages,  was  appointed,  for  the  rest  of  the  souls  of  all 
that  had  fallen  on  that  day,  without  distinction,  whether 
friends  or  foes.  Winkelried  is  justly  held  in  high  honor 
by  his  people,  to  this  day.  It  is  for  all  nations  and  their 
historians  to  show,  that  such  a  hero  becomes  immortal  at 
the  moment  of  his  glorious  death  ;  and  that  all  good  citi- 
zens, fathers,  or  brothers,  become  his  true  descendants. 
The  victors,  after  they  had  tarried  for  three  days  on  the 
battle-field,  according  to  ancient  custom,  dispersed,  bear- 
ing: as  trophies  fifteen  conquered  banners,  and  returned  to 
thw  towns  and  villages,  celebrating  their  achievement 


DEATH   OF  HUSS.  99 


DEATH  OF  HUSS,  A.  D.  1415. 

THE  following  account  is  taken  from  the  work  of  Zach- 
araeus  Theobald,  entitled,  'The  War  of  the  Hussites, 
wherein  is  comprehended  the  Life,  Doctrine,  and  Death, 
of  John  Huss  ;  also,  how  the  same  was  avenged  by  the  Bo- 
hemians, especially  by  John  Zishka,  and  his  Doctrine  af- 
terwards established  in  the  Kingdom,  [Bohemia.]  The 
whole  diligently  collected  from  credible  Historians,  ancient 
Monuments,  and  Manuscripts.  Nuremberg,  1621.'  The 
first  volume  of  this  work  had  appeared  as  early  as  1610, 
under  the  title  of  'The  War  of  the  Hussites,'  the  second 
edition  of  which  volume  formed  a  part  of  the  entire  work, 
whose  title  is  given  above.  Zacharaeus  Theobald  was  born 
in  1584,  at  Schlackenwalde,  in  Bohemia,  studied  divinity, 
and  became  a  village  pastor.  He  had  been  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics,  probably  in  the  university  of  Prague, 
but  died  in  1627,  before  entering  on  the  duties  of  the  of- 
fice. He  was  the  author  of  various  works.  In  the  preface 
to  the  above  history,  he  says,  that  he  has  undertaken  the 
work,  because  there  was  not  any  full  and  accurate  history 
of  the  war  of  the  Hussites,  in  the  German  language.  He 
mentions  the  authorities  consulted  by  him,  and  states,  that 
he  has  taken  the  facts  in  the  Life  of  Huss,  from  the  ac- 
count of  M.  Petras  de  Mladonowiz,  an  eyewitness,  who 
had  then  been  regarded  as  a  standard  authority  in  Bohemia, 
for  two  hundred  years. 

John  Huss  was  born  in  Bohemia,  in  the  year  1373.  He 
studied  at  Prague  ;  and,  in  1402,  received  an  appointment 
as  pastor,  having  previously  delivered  philosophical  and 
theological  lectures.  He  made  the  writings  of  Wiclif  and 
the  Scriptures,  his  peculiar  study.  During  the  violent  dis- 
turbances and  schisms,  which  then  agitated  the  Church, 
Huss  took  part  with  the  anti-papal  party.  He  attacked  the 
licentiousness  of  the  priests,  preached  against  the  sale  of 
indulgences,  masses  for  the  dead,  auricular  confession,  and 
the  withholding  of  the  cup  from  the  laity  in  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, while  he  relied  upon  the  Bible,  as  supreme  authority. 
He  was  cited  to  appear  at  Rome,  but  did  not  obey  the  sum- 
mons in  person  When  the  council  of  Constance  was 


100  GREAT  EVENTS. 

held,  in  order  to  settle  the  great  disturbances  in  the  Church, 
the  German  Emperor  Sigismund  became  responsible  for 
his  personal  safety,  that  is,  he  promised  him  a  safecon- 
duct,  and  Pope  John  XXIII.  made  promises  to  the  same 
effect,  after  the  arrival  of  Huss  at  Constance.  Notwith- 
standing this,  he  was  imprisoned,  in  spite  of  the  reiterated 
remonstrances  of  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  nobles,  and 
was  denied  an  advocate.  After  several  examinations,  he 
was  sentenced  to  death  by  the  assembled  council,  in  1415. 
When  Huss  reminded  the  Emperor  of  his  promise  of  safe- 
conduct,  Sigismund  blushed  ;  but  even  so  solemn  a  prom- 
ise was  not  considered  binding,  in  the  case  of  a  heretic,  and 
Huss  was  burnt  the  same  day,  (July  6,)  upon  which  he 
was  sentenced.  Even  his  enemies  speak  with  admiration 
of  his  unblemished  virtue,  his  modest  demeanor,  and  un- 
shaken fortitude  in  the  hour  of  death. 

When  the  writer  of  these  lines,  many  years  ago,  was  at 
Constance,  in  Switzerland,  he  paid  a  visit  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Bishop  of  that  place,  and,  with  him,  visited  the 
spot,  pointed  out  as  the  place  where  Huss  perished.  The 
Protestant  and  the  Roman  Catholic  visiters  fully  agreed 
respecting  the  unhappy  temper  of  former  times,  which  dic- 
tated these  sacrifices,  so  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  It  ought  to  be  mentioned,  that  the  Catholic 
Church,  especially  the  Romanist  portion,  does  not  acknowl- 
edge the  council  of  Constance  as  oecumenic  ;  that  is,  its 
decrees  are  not  binding  upon  the  Church,  although  it  was 
one  of  the  most  solemn  and  numerous  councils  ever  assem- 
bled, because  it  revived  the  principle,  that  a  general  coun- 
cil is  superior  to  the  Pope,  and  may  even  depose  him. 

The  following  passage  is  taken  from  the  first  volume  of 
Theobald's  War  of  the  Hussites,  Chapter  XX. 

ON  July  the  sixth,  (some  have  written,  erroneously, 
June  the  sixth,)  the  final  examination  of  John  Huss  took 
place,  in  the  following  manner  :  Two  hours  after  the 
break  of  day,  the  Bishop  of  Riga  went,  with  many  men, 
armed  with  pikes,  swords,  and  lances,  to  the  convent  of 
the  Minorites,  ordered  Huss  to  be  taken  from  his  prison, 
and  led  him  to  the  cathedral,  where  the  cardinals,  bish- 
ops, prelates,  priests,  monks,  and  many  of  the  common 
people  who  wished  to  be  spectators,  were  assembled. 
When  they  arrived  before  the  church,  he  ordered  Huss 


DEATH   OF  HUSS.  101 

to  remain  in  the  yard,  that  the  mass  might  not  be  dese- 
crated by  the  presence  of  a  heretic.  When  mass  had 
been  read,  he  was  brought  in,  before  the  assembled  multi- 
tudes, who  were  seated  in  swarms,  on  high  scaffolds,  that 
had  been  built  along  the  walls.  The  Emperor  himself 
sat  under  the  golden  crown,  upon  a  royal  chair.  Near 
him,  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  held  the  orb  with  the  cross. 
On  the  other  side,  stood  the  burgrave  of  Nuremberg,  with 
a  naked  sword.  In  the  centre  of  the  church,  was  erect- 
ed a  pretty  high  table,  upon  which,  lay  the  vestments 
used  in  the  mass.  In  these,  they  ignominiously  arrayed 
Huss,  and  placed  him  before  the  table.  He  knelt  down, 
and  prayed  for  a  long  time.  In  the  mean  time,  Bishop 
Landinns,  otherwise  called  the  monk,  ascended  the  pul- 
pit, from  which  they*  used  to  read  their  decrees,  and 
preached  a  long  sermon  upon  a  passage  from  the  sixth 
chapter  of  the  apostle  Paul  to  the  Romans,  where  he 
says,  "  What  shall-  we  say,  then  ?  Shall  we  continue  in 
sin  ?"  In  this  sermon,  he  taught,  at  length,  what  injury 
is  done  by  heresy,  how  it  destroys  the  church  of  Christ, 
entices  the  people  from  Christ,  and  leads  them  into  the 
mouth  of  the  devil.  He  also  said,  that  "  it  is  right  for 
the  secular  magistrate  to  suppress  it,  and  to  destroy  those 
with  whom  it  originates.  For  such  heretics  are  much 
worse  than  a  tyrant,  however  wicked  even  he  may  be. 
Therefore,  it  is  just,"  added  he,  u  and  the  duty  of  your 
imperial  majesty,  most  invincible  Emperor,  to  execute 
this  stiff-necked  heretic,  since  he  is  in  our  hands,  and  thus 
shall  your  majesty  attain  an  immortal  name,  with  old  and 
young,  so  long  as  the  world  shall  stand,  for  performing  a 
deed  so  glorious,  and  so  pleasing  unto  God." 

When  he  had  finished,  another,  named  Henricus,  ora- 
tor of  the  council,  ascended  the  pulpit,  and  exhorted  the 
assembled  council,  that  they  should  weigh  the  matter  well, 
and  not  rest  nor  yield,  until  they  had  burnt  the  sturdy 
heretic,  for  continuing  so  stiff-necked  in  his  damnable  er- 
ror. After  this,  rose  a  bishop,  and  went  to  the  desk, 
upon  which  they  usually  read  their  decrees.  He  recount- 

*  The  assembled  clergy. 
9* 


102  GREAT  EVENTS. 

ed  the  difficulties  which  Huss  had  had  with  the  archbishop 
of  Prague  and  the  lords  of  the  chapter.  He  likewise 
read  an  account  of  every  thing  which  they  had  done,  in 
relation  to  Huss.  At  length,  all  the  charges  made  agains* 
him  by  the  witnesses,  and  things  of  like  nature,  were  read. 
But  when  they  read,  "  Huss  teaches,  there  is  a  holy 
catholic  church,  which  is  a  community  of  all  the  faithful, 
ordained  by  God  for  eternal  life,  which  is  heretical," 
Huss  answered,  with  a  loud  voice,  "  I  do  not  in  the  least 
doubt,  that  there  is  a  holy  Christian  church,  which  is  a 
community  of  the  elect,  both  in  this  and  the  other  world." 
Upon  this,  the  cardinal  von  Cammerach  says,  "Hold 
your  tongue  ;  after  all  has  been  read,  you  may  answer." 
"  What,"  says  Huss,  "  wiH  you  tie  my  mouth,  even  now? 
How  can  I  answer  to  all  these  charges,  so  numerous,  that 
I  cannot  remember  them  ?"  When  another  charge  had 
been  read,  and  he  attempted  to  answer  it,  the  bishop  of 
Florence  (who  was  one  of  the  judges)  said,  "  Silence  ! 
Heretic,"  and. ordered  the  sergeant  to  force  Huss  to  keep 
silence.  Then  Huss  lifted  his  hands  toward  heaven,  and 
said,  with  a  clear  voice,  "  I  beg  you,  for  the  mercy  of 
God,  at  least  to  hear  me,  for  the  sake  of  those  who  stand 
around,  that  I  may  exculpate  myself,  and  remove  suspi- 
cion from  their  hearts.  Then,  you  may  do  with  me,  as 
you  list."  Finding  he  could  not  obtain  a  hearing,  he  fell 
upon  his  knees,  lifted  his  eyes  and  hands  toward  heaven, 
and  commended  his  cause  to  God.  This  he  did,  repeat- 
edly, while  they  continued  to  read.  When  they  went  on 
to  read  what  the  witnesses  had  deposed,  they  handled  it 
after  a  most  cruel  and  pitiable  fashion,  so  that  no  one  could 
know  who  had  testified  to  this  or  that  charge.  For  in- 
stance :  when  they  had  read  an  article,  they  added,  "  this 
was  heard  by  two  canons  at  Prague,  two  priests,  a  chap- 
lain, and  a  doctor."  Huss  was  silent,  until  they  came  to 
the  passage, — "  Huss  has  taught,  that,  after  the  words  of 
consecration  have  been  pronounced  over  the  bread,  it  re- 
mains natural  and  essential  bread,  which  is  heretical. 
that  a  priest,  polluted  with  deadly  sins,  cannot  ad- 
minister the  sacrament  of  the  nltnr,  which  is  heretical." 
Thereupon  Huss  could  restrain  himself  no  longer  ;  and 


DEATH   OF  HUSS.  103 

attempted  to  answer.  The  cardinal  of  Florence  bade 
him  be  silent,  which  Huss  would  not  do,  but  said,  u  I 
pray  you,  for  the  sake  of  God,  let  me  but  speak,  on  ac- 
count of  those  who  are  here  assembled,  that  they  may  not 
believe,  I  have  taught  such  things.  For,  first,  I  do  not 
confess  that  I  have  believed,  still  less  have  I  preached, 
that  the  consecrated  bread  is  common  natural  bread. 
Secondly,  I  say,  that  every  act  of  a  priest,  laden  with 
deadly  sins,  is  an  abomination  in  the  sight  of  God."  When 
they  read  the  following, — "  Huss  has  taught,  that  there 
are  four  persons  in  the  Godhead.  This  was  heard  by  a 
certain  doctor,  and  is  heretical," — Huss  said,  "  Name  the 
doctor."  This,  the  bishop,  who  was  reading,  refused  to 
do,  saying,  "  There  is  no  need  of  it,  now."  Whereupon 
Huss  exclaimed,  "  Far  be  it  from  me,  a  poor  miserable 
creature,  to  add  a  fourth  person  to  the  Holy  Trinity. 
Such  a  thing  has  never  entered  my  mind,  in  all  the  course 
of  my  life,  God  knows.  Still  less  have  I  preached  it ; — 
/  who  have  always  confessed  one  Divine  Being  in  three 
persons, — God  the  Father,  God  the  Son,  God  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  will  die  in  that  faith."  Then  they  added,  to 
the  previous  articles  :  u  Huss  has  appealed,  in  many  ca- 
ses, to  the  throne  of  God,  which  is  heretical."  Huss 
cried,  "  See,  O  Lord  Christ !  This  council  holds  thy 
law  and  ordinance  to  be  heretical,  who  thyself,  when 
overcome  by  thy  enemies,  didst  commend  thy  cause  to 
thy  heavenly  Father,  the  just  Judge,  leaving  an  example 
to  us,  poor,  miserable  men,  that,  in  our  crosses  and  mis- 
eries, we  should  flee  even  unto  Thee,  as  to  a  just  Judge, 
devoutly  seeking  help.  I,  however,  do  say,  that  the  safest 
and  most  certain  appeal  is,  to  the  Lord  Jesus,  whom  no 
one  can  bribe  with  gifts,  nor  deceive  with  false  witnesses, 
from  whom  no  one  can  escape  by  cunning,  and  who  alone 
shall  deal  out  just  reward."  Lastly,  they  condemned 
him,  because  he  had  contemned  the  Pope's  excommuni- 
cation. Upon  this,  Huss  replied,  "  I  have  in  no  wise 
contemned  him,  but  openly  appealed  to  him,  as  to  a  judge. 
Moreover,  three  times  have  I  sent  to  the  Pope,  men  who 
should  answer  in  my  behalf;  for,  on  account  of  most 
weighty  matters,  it  was  impossible  for  me  to  appear,  my- 


104  GREAT   EVENTS. 

self.  It  is  most  notorious,  that  these  persons  have  not 
been  very  Tairly  dealt  with.  Some  of  them  have  been 
thrown  into  prison,  some  were  not  listened  to,  and  others, 
again,  have  met  with  ill  treatment  of  a  different  kind. 
Therefore,  have  I  come,  betimes,  to  this  council,  with  a 
free  safeconduct  from  the  Roman  emperor,  who  is  now 
present,  in  the  full  confidence,  that  no  violence  should  be 
done  me,  that  I  might  prove  my  innocence."  As  he 
said  this,  he  looked  straight  into  the  face  of  the  Emperor, 
who  blushed,  till  his  face  became  crimson. 

When  he  had  concluded,  the  papal  judge,  an  old  man 
somewhat  bald,  an  Italian,  arose,  and  read  the  sentence 
passed  upon  Huss.  Several  points  of  these  charges,  Huss 
intended  to  deny  and  disprove  ;  and  certainly  would  have 
done  so,  had  the  sergeants  not  prevented  him.  But  when 
he  was  accused  of  obstinately  persevering  in  his  errors, 
for  years,  Huss  said,  "  I  do  not  confess  to  this  charge, 
for  I  have  always  desired,  and  do  so  still,  this  day,  to  be 
informed  and  corrected  by  stronger  proof  from  the  Scrip- 
ture ;  and,  if,  by  the  will  of  God,  there  is  a  single  word 
in  the  Holy  Scripture,  that  can  prove  me  in  the  wrong, 
willingly  would  I  recant."  When  they  ordered  his  Books 
of  the  Christian  Church,  with  all  his  other  works,  in  Latin 
and  Bohemian,  and  those  which  had  been  translated  by 
other  persons  into  other  languages,  at  Constance  or  other 
places,  to  be  burnt,  Huss  said,  "  How  can  you  justly 
condemn  my  books,  since  I  have,  at  all  times,  desired  to 
be  better  informed.  But  this  I  have  never  yet  been  ;  nor 
has  one  word  that  I  have  written  yet  been  proved  false. 
Still  further,  why  shall  my  books  be  annihilated  by  your 
ordinance,  you  who  have  never  seen  them,  or  if  you  have 
seen  them,  do  not  understand  them,  because  you  do  not 
know  the  Bohemian  language."  After  he  had  thus  said, 
and  they  proceeded  with  the  sentence,  he  knelt  down, 
looked  up  to  heaven,  and  prayed  thus  :  "  Lord  God,  I 
fervently  supplicate  that,  in  thy  endless  mercy,  Thou  \\ilt 
jKinlon  these  my  enemies  ;  for  Thou  knowest  well,  that 
1  have  been  falsely  accused,  by  false  witnesses,  of  ficti- 
tious errors,  and  have  been  unfairly  sentenced.  There- 
fore, I  pray  Thee,  of  thine  unspeakable  mercy,  that  Thou 


DEATH   OF   HUSS.  105 

wilt  not  lay  it  to  their  charge."  When  he  had  said  this, 
aloud,  the  priests,  especially  the  bishops,  eyed  him  with 
a  malignant  and  scornful  smile.  By  the  order  of  the 
seven  bishops,  appointed  to  degrade  him,  he  put  on  the 
vestments  used  in  the  mass,  as  though  he  were  about  to 
read  mass.  When  he  put  on  the  alba,  he  thus  spoke  : 
"  My  master,  Christ,  when  he  was  sent  from  Herod  to 
Pilate,  was  likewise  arrayed  in  a  white  garment,  and  mock- 
ed by  the  priests."  When  he  had  put  on  all  these  vest- 
ments, the  bishops  exhorted  him  to  confess,  before  it  was 
too  late,  to  recant,  and  abjure  his  errors. 

But  he  turned  to  the  people,  and,  with  tears,  thus  ad- 
dressed them  :  "  Behold,  the  bishops  exhort  me  to  ab- 
jure my  errors  ;  but  I  fear  to  do  so,  lest  I  should  be  found 
a  liar,  before  the  face  of  God.  He,  who  falsely  confesses 
himself  to  be  in  error,  violates  his  conscience  and  Divine 
truth.  I  have  never  taught  such  doctrines  as  have  been 
laid  to  my  charge  by  false  witnesses.  Further,  I  dare 
not  do  it,  lest  I  should  offend  the  pious  hearts  of  the  hear- 
ers whom  I  have  taught,  and  lead  them,  and  other  faithful 
servants  of  the  word,  astray  from  the  truth."  When  he 
had  finished,  the  bishops  and  all  the  priests  exclaimed, 
together:  "Now  we  see  how  stiff-necked  he  is,  in  his 
wickedness,  and  obdurate,  in  heresy.  Get  down  from  the 
table  !  get  down  !"  When  he  had  descended,  the  bish- 
ops began  to  degrade  him,  in  the  following  manner  :  They 
first  took  from  him  the  chalice,  saying,  u  O  !  thou  cursed 
Judas  !  who  didst  forsake  the  counsels  of  peace,  and  join 
thyself  with  Jews,  behold,  we  take  from  thee  this  chalice, 
in  which  the  blood  of  Christ  is  offered  up  for  the  remis- 
sion of  sins."  But  Huss  replied,  u  Confiding  in  my  God 
and  Saviour,  I  indulge  the  hope,  that  He  will  not  take  from 
me  the  cup  of  salvation,  and  trust,  that,  through  his  grace, 
I  shall  drink  of  it,  this  day,  in  his  kingdom."  They 
proceeded  to  take  from  him  the  other  articles,  one  after 
another,  and,  as  each  was  removed,  they  pronounced  a 
curse.  Upon  this,  Huss  said,  "  I  suffer  this,  willingly, 
for  the  truth  and  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ." 
At  length,  when  he  was  stripped  of  all  the  vestments  used 
in  performing  the  mass,  they  were  proceeding  to  desecrate 


106  GREAT  EVENTS. 

the  spot  on  his  head.  As  they  were  about  to  do  so,  a 
dispute  arose  among  the  bishops  and  priests.  For  some 
would  do  it  with  a  razor  ;  others  said,  it  might  be  done, 
as  well,  with  the  scissors.  Whilst  they  were  thus  warmly 
disputing,  Huss  turned  to  the  Emperor,  and  said  :  "  Lo  ! 
the  bishops  cannot  agree  in  their  mockery  of  me."  But 
when,  at  length,  they  had  decided  upon  it,  they  made  a 
cross  on  his  head,  with  the  scissors,  and  said,  "  The  holy 
council  of  Constance  expels  John  Huss  from  the  holy 
and  magnificent  order  of  priests,  to  which  he  has  belong- 
ed, and  thus  indicates,  that  he  has  severed  himself  from 
the  Christian  church,  and  that  henceforth  he  is  not  subject 
to  the  ecclesiastical,  but  to  the  secular,  power."  Before 
placing  the  paper  crown  upon  his  head,  they  said,  u  We 
commend  thy  soul  to  the  devils."  Huss  folded  his  hands, 
looked  upwards,  and  said,  "Well,  then,  I  commend  it 
to  rny  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  On  seeing  the  crown,  he 
said,  u  My  Lord  Jesus  Christ  has  worn  for  me,  poor, 
sinful  man,  a  heavier  crown  of  thorns,  and  even  suffered 
an  ignominious  death  on  the  cross.  Therefore,  I,  a  poor 
sinner,  willingly  wear  this,  which  is  much  lighter,  although 
it  has  been  made  to  deride  me."  This  crown  was  about 
half  an  ell  long,  and  formed  like  a  haystack  ;  on  it,  were 
painted  three  large,  horrid  devils,  and  it  bore  this  super- 
scription :  "  This  is  a  heretic."  Soon  after  this,  the 
Emperor  said  to  Duke  Lewis,  "'Go,  and  give  him  over 
to  the  beadles."  The  Duke  stepped  aside,  took  off  the 
princely  mantle  which  he  wore  when  in  attendance  upon 
the  Kmperor,  handed  him  over  to  the  officers,  and  accom- 
panied him  to  the  place  where  he  was  burned. 

It  is  recorded,  that  the  Emperor's  chancellor,  Count 
Caspar  Schlick,  as  soon  as  he  heard  the  sentence,  left 
the  church,  and  openly  protested,  that  he  could  not,  with 
a  good  conscience,  be  present  at  the  execution  of  so  hasty 
a  sentence.  He  was  a  learned,  wise  man,  mid  of  great 
understanding.  He  was  chancellor  to  three  successive 
kings  ;  (a  circumstance  at  which  Sylvius  expresses  his 
surprise;  ;)  and  met  with  no  reverses  of  fortune,  but  was 
(1  l>v  all  these  sovereigns  with  the  government  of 
wealthy  cities,  such  as  Passau,  Weissenkirchen,  (from 


DEATH   OF  HUSS.  107 

which  the  counts  of  Schlick  have,  to  this  day,  their  title,) 
Elnbogen,  and  Gratz  in  Styria. 

When  the  condemned  Huss,  with  his  crown  of  paper, 
was  led  by  the  hangman  from  the  church  to  the  fagot, 
his  spirits  rose  ;  and  it  is  testified  of  him,  even  by  his 
enemies,  as  well  as  his  friends,  by  M.  Hieronymus, 
and  especially,  Sylvius,  (who%afterwards  became  Pope,) 
that  he  seemed  as  though  he  were  going  to  a  gladsome 
meal,  or,  as  the  vulgar  saying  is,  to  a  dance.  But,  when 
he  saw  his  books  burning  in  the  churchyard,  he  stopped, 
and  smiled.  As  he  passed  along,  he  exhorted  the  people 
"  not  to  believe  that  he  was  going  to  be  burnt  for  his  er 
rors  ;  for,  that  some  articles  were  charged  against  him, 
on  the  false  testimony  of  his  deadly  enemies,  although  he 
had  never  taught  them  ;  that  others  had  never  been  proved 
to  be  false,  although  he  had  urgently  requested  it."  But 
the  people  who  went  along  with  him,  were  all  armed, 
especially  the  burghers,  who  had  been  called  upon  to  at- 
tend. When  they  arrived  at  the  place  where  he  was  to  be 
burnt,  Huss  fell  upon  his  knees,  clasped  his  hands,  which 
were  not  tied,  looked  towards  heaven,  and  repeated  the 
thirtieth  and  fiftieth  Psalms  of  David.  And  he  especially 
repeated  many  times  the  verse,  u  Into  thy  hands  I  com- 
mend my  spirit ;  Thou  hast  delivered  it,  faithful  God  !" 
When  some  of  the  common  people  heard  this,  they  said, 
cc  What  this  man  has  previously  taught  or  preached,  we 
know  not ;  but,  now,  we  hear  none  but  holy  words  from 
his  lips."  Others  said,  "  He  ought  to  have  a  confes- 
sor." But  a  fat  priest,  clad  in  a  green  gown,  with  a  red 
lining,  rode  along,  saying*  "  They  shall  not  hear  the  her- 
etic, and  there  is  no  need  of  a  confessor."  But  Huss  had 
confessed,  seven  days  previously,  to  a  monk,  who  had 
been  allowed  him  by  the  council,  and  who  absolved  him. 
The  crown,  which  had  fallen  from  the  head  of  Huss, 
while  praying,  was  put  on  again,  at  which  he  smiled. 
They  said,  "  The  devils  should  be  burnt  along  with  the 
devils'  servant."  When,  by  order  of  the  executioner,  he 
stood  upright,  he  began  to  pray  thus,  in  a  loud  voice  : 
"  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  I  will  cheerfully  suffer  this  fearful 
ana  shameful  death,  for  the  sake  of  thy  holy  gospel  <\nd 


108  GREAT  EVENTS. 

thy  Divine  word  ;  O  !  forgive  my  enemies  for  this  sin." 
The  executioner  then  led  him  about,  to  bless  the  people,* 
whom  he  earnestly  begged  "  not  to  believe  that  he  had 
taught  any  thing  contrary  to  the  word  of  God."  Lastly, 
he  begged  to  speak  once  more  to  those  who  had  been  his 
keepers,  when  he  was  in  prison  ;  and  when  he  came  to 
them,  he  said,  "  Dear  brethren,  I  give  you  many  thanks  for 
the  favors  which  you  have  bestowed  upon  me,  during  my 
long  imprisonment.  You  have  not  been  my  keepers,  but 
brethren  ;  and  I  declare  to  you,  that  I  faithfully  believe  I 
shall  reign  this  day  with  my  Lord  and  Saviour,  for  whose 
name  I  suffer  this  death."  He  then  advanced,  cheerfully, 
and  without  one  sign  of  fear,  to  the  stake,  which  had  been 
planted  in  the  ground,  to  which  the  executioner  bound 
him  with  six  ropes,  his  arms  being  tied  behind  his  back. 
But,  in  doing  this,  the  executioners  had  made  a  mistake  ; 
for  they  had  placed  his  face  toward  the  east,  and  they 
were  obliged  to  turn  him,  being  a  heretic,  towards  the 
west.  Around  his  neck  they  placed  an  old  rusty  chain, 
as  though  he  were  unworthy  of  a  new  one  :  when  Huss 
saw  this,  he  said,  with  a  smile,  tc  My  Lord  Christ  was 
bound  for  me,  with  a  far  heavier  chain.  Why  should  I 
be  ashamed  to  be  bound  with  so  old  and  rusty  a  one  ?" 
Under  his  feet,  on  which  his  boots  still  remained,  and  the 
fetters  also,  they  placed  two  fagots,  and  around  him,  much 
wood,  and  straw,  and  branches,  as  high  as  his  neck.  But 
before  the  executioners  lighted  it,  Duke  Lewis  of  Ba- 
varia, with  the  marshal  of  some  imperial  city  by  his  side, 
rode  up  to  him,  and  exhorted  him  to  renounce  his  errors, 
(as  they  thought  them,)  and  to  abjure  his  doctrines.  Then 
Huss  cried,  with  a  clear  voice,  from  the  stake,  "  I  call 
God  to  witness,  that  I  have  not  taught  nor  written  what 
false  witnesses  have  laid  to  my  charge  ;  but  that  the  aim 
of  all  my  sermons,  doctrines,  and  writings,  has  been,  to 
turn  the  people  from  their  sins,  and  lead  them  to  the 
kingdom  of  God.  This  truth,  which  I  have  taught, 

*  This  means,  I  believe,  to  bid  them  farewell,  because  one  of  the 
common  forms  of  doing  so  is,  "  God  bless  you  ;"  hence,  blessing,  for 
wishing  this  blessing.  Otherwise,  the  text  would  contain  a  contradic- 
tion,  since  a  heretic  and  outcast  priest  could  not  bless  the  people. 


DEATH   OF  HUSS.  109 

preached,  written,  and  diffused,  and  which  agrees  with 
the  word  of  God,  I  will  keep,  and  seal  with  my  death." 
When  they  heard  this,  they  clasped  their  hands  together, 
and  rode  off.  Soon  after,  the  executioners  lighted  the 
fire,  which  caught  quickly,  because  there  was  much  straw 
between  the  wood.  When  Huss  saw  the  smoke,  he  sang, 
in  a  clear  voice,  "  Christ,  §on  of  God,  have  mercy 
upon  me."  But  when  he  was  about  to  say,  the  third 
time,  "  Christ,  son  of  God,  born  of  a  pure  Virgin,"  the 
flame  reached  his  face,  and  deprived  him  of  speech,  so 
that  he  could  not  pronounce,  "  Have  rnercy  upon  me  ;" 
but  he  prayed,  and  nodded  with  his  head,  as  long  as 
it  takes  one  to  repeat  the  Lord's  prayer,  upon  which  he 
died.  When  the  wood  was  burnt,  but  the  body,  not  en- 
tirely consumed,  yet  hung  upon  the  stake,  the  execution- 
ers pushed  it  down  with  poles,  and  threw  more  wood 
upon  it.  They  then  broke  the  bones  with  the  poles,  that 
they  might  burn  the  sooner.  The  head,  too,  they  beat 
to  pieces  ;  but  the  heart,  which  was  found  among  the 
entrails,  they  put  on  the  end  of  a  pointed  pole,  and  roast- 
ed it. 

When  Duke  Lewis  was  informed  that  one  of  the  exe- 
cutioners had  the  cloak,  girdle,  and  other  articles  of  cloth- 
ing, belonging  to  Huss,  he  ordered  them  "  to  burn  every 
thing,  or"  (as  certainly  would  have  happened,)  "  the 
Bohemians  would  keep  them,  as  relics."  The  execu- 
tioner, at  first,  refused  ;  but,  when  a  stipulated  sum  of 
money  was  promised  him,  he  threw  every  thing  into  the 
fire.  At  length,  when  every  thing  was  consumed,  they 
put  the  ashes,  together  with  the  earth,  which  they  dug  out 
to  the  depth  of  some  feet,  upon  a  cart,  and  threw  it  into 
the  Rhine.  The  place,  where  this  happened,  is  between 
the  gardens  of  the  suburb,  by  the  road  leading  to  Gottle- 
ben.  Some,  who  have  been  at  the  place,  say,  that,  to 
this  day,  no  grass  will  grow  on  the  spot.  Whether  this 
be  true,  I  know  not. 

Before  Huss  suffered,  the  Council  had  wreaked  a  tar- 
dy vengeance  on  his  forerunner  and  preceptor,  Wiclif, 
whose  body  was  ordered  "to  be  taken  from  the  ground, 

10  G.    E. 


110  GREAT   EVENTS. 

and  thrown  far  away  from  the  burial  of  any  church." 
After  the  lapse  of  thirteen  years,  the  sentence  was  exe- 
cuted, hy  disinterring  and  burning  the  Reformer's  body, 
and  casting  the  ashes  into  a  neighboring  brook.  The 
often  quoted  words  of  Fuller,  on  this  occasion,  may  be 
equally  well  applied  to  the  good  man,  whose  history  has 
just  been  related  :  "  The  brook  did  convey  his  ashes 
into  Avon  ;  Avon  into  Severn  ;  Severn  into  the  narrow 
seas  ;  they  into  the  main  ocean.  And  thus,  the  ashes 
of  Wiclif  are  the  emblem  of  his  doctrine,  which  now  is 
dispersed  all  the  world  over." 

Jerome  of  Prague  has  been  already  mentioned,  as  the 
most  distinguished  among  Huss's  followers,  and  his  coad- 
jutor in  preaching.  He  was  summoned  to  Constance,  in 
the  Spring  of  1415,  before  Huss  had  suffered  martyr- 
dom ;  and  it  was  probably  in  consequence  of  witnessing 
his  companion's  sufferings,  that  he  was  induced  to  retract, 
to  condemn,  in  the  strongest  terms,  as  blasphemous  and 
seditious,  the  tenets  which,  in  his  heart,  he  still  continued 
to  hold,  and  to  profess  his  entire  adherence  to  all  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Roman  Church.  Fortunately,  he  was  not 
left  to  endure,  through  life,  the  reproaches  of  conscience  ; 
for  the  continued  enmity  and  mistaken  persecution  of  his 
adversaries  conferred  a  benefit  on  him,  which  they  were 
far  from  intending.  He  was  still  retained  in  confinement, 
and  harassed  with  fresh  charges,  though  his  retractation 
had  been  ample  and  complete.  At  last,  he  obtained  a 
public  audience  before  the  Council,  on  the  twenty-third  of 
May,  1416  ;  when  he  recalled  his  former  recantation,  con- 
fessing that  it  had  been  dictated  only  by  the  fear  of  a  pain- 
ful death.  Poggio,  the  Florentine,  who  was  a  witness  of 
the  whole  course  of  Jerome's  trial,  has  left  a  long  and 
interesting  account  of  it,  in  a  letter  to  Leonardo  Aretino  ; 
from  which,  it  appears  that  his  sympathy  had  been  strong- 
ly excited,  by  the  constancy  of  the  sufferer.  Though 
connected  with  the  highest  dignitaries  of  the  Church,  he 
writes  in  sucli  a  strain  of  admiration,  that  his  friend  thought 
it  necessary  to  warn  him  of  the  danger  which  he  might 
incur,  by  speaking  of  a  condemned  heretic  in  such  terms. 


CONQUEST  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  Ill 

THE  CONQUEST  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE. 

BY    GIBBON. 

EDWARD  GIBBON  was  born  in  1737,  at  Putney,  in  Eng- 
land, and  died  in  1794.  The  biography  of  this  great  his- 
torian, of  the  Decline  and  final  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
may  be  found  in  so  many  works,  accessible  to  every  one, 
and  in  a  form  so  much  more  complete  than  it  would  be  pos- 
sible to  give  it  here,  that  readers  will  not  expect  from  us, 
even  a  hasty  outline.  Whatever  Gibbon's  faults  may  be, 
for  instance,  his  peculiar  skepticism,  still  his  work  is  a 
truly-great  one  ;  and  I  may  be  permitted  to  repeat,  here, 
what  I  have  stated  in  another  place,  at  great  length,  that 
few  works  are  more  instructive  to  a  reflecting  man.  For 
it  shows  the  protracted  disease  and  corruption  of  an  em- 
pire ;  the  anatomy  of  a  body  politic  laid  bare  ;  and  is  full 
of  warning  to  every  one,  disposed  to  heed  the  grave  lessons 
furnished  by  that  period. 

The  Byzantine  empire  had  gradually  dwindled  in  extent, 
as  well  as  internal  power,  so  that  nothing  could  restore  its 
vigor.  The  Greeks  had  become  grossly  corrupt,  in  morals 
and  politics,  and  had  given  themselves  up  to  the  most 
wayward  folly,  in  religion,  while  they  still  were  puffed  up  by 
the  recollection  of  former  grandeur  and  early  civilization. 
Degenerated,  as  they  were,  in  almost  every  respect,  and 
to  so  frightful  a  degree,  nothing,  according  to  the  experi- 
ence we  derive  from  history,  could  resuscitate  that  coun- 
try and  establish  a  better  order  of  things,  but  a  total  re- 
generation, by  a  fresh  admixture  from  foreign  nations, — a 
conquest  by  a  better  race.  Such  was  not  their  fate.  An 
Asiatic  race,  which,  out  of  the  many  tribes  which  profess 
Islamism,  is  one  of  those  least  susceptible  of  civilization, — 
the  Turks, — were  the  conquerors  of  this  tottering  empire. 
Nor  is  this  the  only  melancholy  reflection  which  forces  it- 
self upon  our  mind,  in  regarding  this  conquest.  It  happen- 
ed, in  this  case,  as  in  so  many  others  recorded  in  history, 
that  those,  who  would  have  been  worthy  of  better  days,  and 
who  would  not  have  caused  or  promoted  the  general  de- 
generacy, were  nevertheless  often  obliged  to  bear  its  fright- 
ful consequences,  and  the  ultimate  ruin  brought  on  by  it. 


112  GREAT  E1ENTS. 

Thus,  too,  Louis  the  Sixteenth,  a  better  man  than  either 
of  his  three  predecessors,  was  destined  to  mount  the  scaf- 
fold, mainly  in  consequence  of  their  vicious  government. 

At  present,  centuries  after  the  conquest  of  Constantino- 
ple in  1453,  our  mind  is  relieved  by  the  consideration,  that 
the  very  barbarity  of  the  victorious  Turks,  at  that  time, 
was  attended  with  some  advantageous  consequences.  Many 
learned  Greeks,  inheriting  a  large  share  of  the  civilization 
of  their  forefathers,  emigrated  to  the  west  of  Europe,  (for 
instance,  to  Florence,)  where  they  rekindled  an  ardor  for 
the  study  of  the  ancients,  gave  an  impulse  to  the  revival 
of  letters,  diffused  a  new  taste,  and  awakened  a  spirit  of 
sound  criticism  ;  in  short,  contributed,  most  powerfully,  to 
the  preparation  of  the  European  mind  for  that  great  event, 
the  Reformation, 

WHILE  Mohammed*  threatened  the  capital  of  the 
East,  the  Greek  Emperor  implored,  with  fervent  prayers, 
the  assistance  of  earth  and  Heaven.  But  the  invisible 
powers  were  deaf  to  his  supplications  ;  and  Christendom 
beheld,  with  indifference,  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  while 
she  derived,  at  least,  some  promise  of  supply  from  the 
jealous  and  temporal  policy  of  the  Sultan  of  Egypt. 
Some  states  were  too  weak,  and  others  too  remote  ;  by 
some,  the  danger  was  considered  as  imaginary  ;  by  oth- 
ers, as  inevitable  :  the  western  princes  were  involved  in 
their  endless  and  domestic  quarrels  ;  and  the  Roman 
Pontiff  was  exasperated  by  the  falsehood  or  obstinacy  of 
the  Greeks.  Instead  of  employing,  in  their  favor,  the 
arms  and  treasures  of  Italy,  Nicholas  the  Fifth  had  fore- 
told their  approaching  ruin,  and  his  honor  was  engaged  in 
the  accomplishment  of  his  prophecy.  Perhaps  he  was 
softened  by  the  last  extremity  of  their  distress  ;  but  his 
compassion  was  tardy  ;  his  efforts  were  faint  and  unavail- 
ing ;  and  Constantinople  had  fallen,  before  the  squadron* 
of  Genoa  and  Venice  could  sail  from  tliuir  harbors.  Kve> 
the  princes  of  the  Morea  and  of  the  Greek  islands  affect- 
ed  a  cold  neutrality  ;  the  Genoese  colony  of  Galata  ne 
gotiated  a  private  treaty  ;  and  the  Sultan  indulged  them 

*  Mohammed  II.,  Sultan  of  the  Turks,  who  began  to  rci^n,  A.  D 
1451.  The  liege  of  Constantinople  began,  April  6,  A.  D.  1453. 


CONQUEST  OP  CONSTANTINOPLE.        113 

in  the  delusive  hope,  that,  by  his  clemency,  they  might 
survive  the  ruin  of  the  Empire.  A  plebeian  crowd,  and 
some  Byzantine  nobles,  basely  withdrew  from  the  danger 
of  their  country  ;  and  the  avarice  of  the  rich  denied  the 
Emperor,  and  reserved  for  the  Turks,  the  secret  treasures 
which  might  have  raised  in  their  defence  whole  armies 
of  mercenaries. 

The  indigent  and  solitary  prince  prepared,  however, 
to  sustain  his  formidable  adversary  ;  but,  if  his  courage 
was  equal  to  the  peril,  his  strength  was  inadequate  to  the 
contest.  In  the  beginning  of  the  Spring,  the  Turkish 
vanguard  swept  the  towns  and  villages,  as  far  as  the  gates 
of  Constantinople  :  submission  was  spared  and  protect- 
ed ;  whatever  presumed  to  resist,  was  exterminated  with 
fire  and  sword.  The  Greek  places  on  the  Black  Sea, 
Mesembria,  Achelotim,  and  Bizon,  surrendered,  on  the 
first  summons  ;  Selybria,  alone,  deserved  the  honors  of  a 
siege  or  blockade  ;  and  the  bold  inhabitants,  while  they 
were  invested  by  land,  launched  their  boats,  pillaged  the 
opposite  coast  of  Cyzicus,  and  sold  their  captives  in  the 
public  market.  But  on  the  approach  of  Mohammed, 
himself,  all  was  silent  and  prostrate  :  he  first  halted  at  the 
distance  of  five  miles  ;  and  from  thence  advancing,  in  bat- 
tle array,  planted  before  the  gate  of  St.  Romanus  the  Im- 
perial standard  ;  and,  on  the  sixth  day  of  April,  formed 
the  memorable  siege  of  Constantinople. 

The  troops  of  Asia  and  Europe  extended,  on  the  right 
and  left,  from  the  Propontis  to  the  harbor ;  the  Janizaries 
in  the  front  were  stationed  before  the  Sultan's  tent ;  the 
Ottoman  line  was  covered  by  a  deep  intrenchment ;  and 
a  subordinate  army  enclosed  the  suburb  of  Galata,  and 
watched  the  doubtful  faith  of  the  Genoese.  The  inquis- 
itive Philelphus,  who  resided  in  Greece,  about  thirty 
years  before  the  siege,  is  confident,  that  all  the  Turkish 
forces,  of  any  name  or  value,  could  not  exceed  the  num- 
ber of  sixty  thousand  horse,  and  twenty  thousand  foot ; 
and  he  upbraids  the  pusillanimity  of  the  nations,  who  had 
tamely  yielded  to  a  handful  of  barbarians.  Such,  indeed, 
might  be  the  regular  establishment  of  the  Capiculi,  the 
troops  of  the  Porte,  who  marched  with  the  prince,  and 
10* 


114  GREAT  EVENTS. 

were  paid  from  his  royal  treasury.  But  the  Bashaws,  in 
their  respective  governments,  maintained  or  levied  a  pro- 
vincial militia  ;  many  lands  were  held  by  a  military  ten- 
ure ;  many  volunteers  were  attracted  by  the  hope  of 
spoil ;  and  the  sound  of  the  holy  trumpet  invited  a  swarm 
of  hungry  and  fearless  fanatics,  who  might  contribute  at 
least  to  multiply  the  terrors,  and,  in  a  first  attack,  to  blunt 
the  swords,  of  the  Christians.  The  whole  mass  of  the 
Turkish  powers  is  magnified  by  Ducas,  Chalcocondyles,_ 
and  Leonard  of  Chios,  to  the  amount  of  three  or  four 
hundred  thousand  men  ;  but  Phranza  was  a  less  remote 
and  more  accurate  judge  ;  and  his  precise  definition,  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty-eight  thousand,  does  not  exceed 
the  measure  of  experience  and  probability. 

The  navy  of  the  besiegers  was  less  formidable  :  the 
Propontis  was  overspread  with  three  hundred  and  twenty 
sail ;  but  of  these,  no  more  than  eighteen  could  be  rated 
as  galleys  of  war  ;  and  the  far  greater  part  must  be  de- 
graded to  the  condition  of  store-ships  and  transports,  which 
poured  into  the  camp  fresh  supplies  of  men,  ammunition, 
and  provisions.  In  her  last  decay,  Constantinople  was 
still  peopled  with  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  inhabit- 
ants ;  but  these  numbers  are  found  in  the  accounts,  not 
of  war,  but  of  captivity  ;  and  they  mostly  consisted  of 
mechanics,  of  priests,  of  women,  and  of  men  devoid  of 
that  spirit,  which  even  women  have  sometimes  exerted 
for  the  common  safety.  I  can  suppose,  I  could  almost 
excuse,  the  reluctance  of  subjects  to  serve  on  a  distant 
frontier,  at  the  will  of  a  tyrant ;  but  the  man,  who  dares 
not  expose  his  life  in  the  defence  of  his  children  and  his 
property,  has  lost  in  society  the  first  and  most  active  en- 
ergies of  Nature. 

By  the  Emperor's  command,  a  particular  inquiry  had 
been  made,  through  the  streets  and  houses,  how  many  of 
the  citizens,  or  even  of  the  monks,  were  able  and  willing 
to  bear  arms  for  their  country.  The  lists  were  intrusted 
to  Piirunza  ;  and,  after  a  diligent  addition,  he  informed 
his  master,  with  grief  and  surprise,  that  the  national  de- 
fence was  reduced  ID  four  thousand  IMHU  hundred  and  sev- 
enty Romans.  Between  Constantino  and  his  faithful  min- 


CONQUEST   OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  115 

ister,  this  comfortless  secret  was  preserved  ;  and  a  suffi- 
cient proportion  of  shields,  crossbows,  and  muskets,  was 
distributed  from  the  arsenal  to  the  city  bands. 

They  derived  some  accession  from  a  body  of  two 
thousand  strangers,  under  the  command  of  John  Justini- 
arii,  a  noble  Genoese.  A  liberal  donative  was  advanced 
to  these  auxiliaries  ;  and  a  princely  recompense, — the  isle 
of  Lemnos, — was  promised  to  the  valor  and  victory  of 
their  chief. 

A  strong  chain  was  drawn  across  the  mouth  of  the 
harbor  :  it  was  supported  by  some  Greek  and  Italian 
vessels  of  war  and  merchandise  ;  and  the  ships  of  every 
Christian  nation,  that  successively  arrived  from  Candia 
and  the  Black  Sea,  were  detained  for  the  public  service. 
Against  the  powers  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  a  city  of  the 
extent  of  thirteen,  perhaps  of  sixteen,  miles,  was  defend- 
ed by  a  scanty  garrison  of  seven  or  eight  thousand  sol- 
diers. Europe  and  Asia  were  open  to  the  besiegers  ; 
but  the  strength  and  provisions  of  the  Greeks  must  sustain 
a  daily  decrease  ;  nor  could  they  indulge  the  expectation 
of  any  foreign  succor  or  supply. 

The  primitive  Romans  would  have  drawn  their  swords, 
in  the  resolution  of  death  or  conquest.  The  primitive 
Christians  might  have  embraced  each  other,  and  awaited, 
in  patience  and  charity,  the  stroke  of  martyrdom.  But 
the  Greeks  of  Constantinople  were  animated,  only  by  the 
spirit  of  religion,  and  that  spirit  was  productive,  only  of 
animosity  and  discord.  Before  his  death,  the  Emperor 
John  Palaeologus  had  renounced  the  unpopular  measure 
of  a  union  with  the  Latins  ;  nor  was  the  idea  revived,  till 
the  distress  of  his  brother  Constantino  imposed  a  last  trial 
of  flattery  and  dissimulation.  With  the  demand  of  tem- 
poral aid,  his  ambassadors  were  instructed  to  mingle  the 
assurance  of  spiritual  obedience  ;  his  neglect  of  the  Church 
was  excused  by  the  urgent  cares  of  State  ;  and  his  ortho- 
dox wishes  solicited  the  presence  of  a  Roman  legate. 

The  Vatican  had  been  too  often  deluded  ;  yet  the  signs 
of  repentance  could  not  decently  be  overlooked  ;  a  legate 
was  more  easily  granted  than  an  army  ;  and,  about  six 
months  before  the  final  destruction,  the  cardinal  Isidore, 


116  GREAT    EVENTS. 

of  Russia,  appeared  in  that  character,  with  a  retinue  of 
priests  and  soldiers.  The  Emperor  saluted  him  as  a 
friend  and  father  ;  respectfully  listened  to  his  public  and 
private  sermons  ;  and,  with  the  most  obsequious  of  the 
clergy  and  laymen,  subscribed  the  act  of  union,  as  it  had 
been  ratified  in  the  council  of  Florence.  On  the  twelfth 
of  December,  the  two  nations,  in  the  church  of  St.  So- 
phia, joined  in  the  communion  of  sacrifice  and  prayer  ; 
and  the  names  of  the  two  Pontiffs  were  solemnly  com- 
memorated,— the  names  of  Nicholas  the  Fifth,  the  Vicar 
of  Christ,  and  of  the  Patriarch  Gregory,  who  had  been 
driven  into  exile  by  a  rebellious  people. 

But  the  dress  and  language  of  the  Latin  priest,  who  of- 
ficiated at  the  altar,  were  an  object  of  scandal ;  and  it  was 
observed,  with  horror,  that  he  consecrated  a  cake  or  wa- 
fer of  unleavened  bread,  and  poured  cold  water  into  the 
cup  of  the  sacrament.  A  national  historian  acknowl- 
edges, with  a  blush,  that  none  of  his  countrymen,  not  the 
Emperor  himself,  were  sincere  in  this  occasional  confor- 
mity. Their  hasty  and  unconditional  submission  was 
palliated,  by  a  promise  of  future  revisal ;  but  the  best,  or 
the  worst,  of  their  excuses,  was  the  confession  of  their 
own  perjury.  When  they  were  pressed  by  the  reproaches 
of  their  honest  brethren,  "  Have  patience,"  they  whis- 
pered, "  have  patience,  till  God  shall  have  delivered  the 
city  from  the  great  dragon  who  seeks  to  devour  us.  You 
shall  then  perceive,  whether  we  are  truly  reconciled  with 
the  Azymites."  But  patience  is  not  the  attribute  of  zeal  ; 
nor  can  the  arts  of  a  court  be  adapted  to  the  freedom  and 
violence  of  popular  enthusiasm. 

From  the  dome  of  St.  Sophia,  the  inhabitants,  of  either 
sex,  and  of  every  degree,  rushed,  in  crowds,  to  the  cel^of 
the  monk  Gennadius,  to  consult  the  oracle  of  the  Church. 
The  holy  man  was  invisible  ;  entranced,  as  it  should  seem, 
in  deep  meditation,  or  Divine  rapture  :  but  he  had  ex- 
posed, on  the  door  of  his  cell,  a  speaking  tablet ;  and  they 
successively  withdrew,-  after  reading  these  tremendous 
words:  UO  miserable  Romans!  why  will  ye  abandon 
the  truth  ;  and  why,  instead  of  confiding  in  God,  will  ye 
put  your  trust  in  the;  Italians  ?  In  losing  your  faith,  you 


CONQUEST  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  117 

will  lose  your  city.  Have  mercy  on  me,  O  Lord  !  I 
protest,  in  thy  presence,  that  I  am  innocent  of  the  crime. 
O  miserable  Romans  !  consider,  pause,  and  repent.  At 
the  same  moment  that  you  renounce  the  religion  of  your 
fathers,  by  embracing  impiety,  you  submit  to  a  foreign 
servitude."  According  to  the  advice  of  Gennadius,  the 
religious  virgins,  as  pure  as  angels  and  as  proud  as  de- 
mons, rejected  the  act  of  union,  and  abjured  all  commu- 
nion with  the  present  and  future  associates  of  the  Latins  ; 
and  their  example  was  applauded  and  imitated,  by  the 
greatest  part  of  the  clergy  and  people. 

From  the  monastery,  the  devout  Greeks  dispersed 
themselves  in  the  taverns  ;  drank  confusion  to  the  slaves 
of  the  Pope  ;  emptied  their  glasses  in  honor  of  the  image 
of  the  holy  Virgin  ;  and  besought  her  to  defend  against 
Mohammed,  the  city  which  she  had  formerly  saved  from 
Chosroes  and  Chagan.  In  the  double  intoxication  of 
zeal  and  wine,  they  valiantly  exclaimed,  u  What  occasion 
have  we  for  succor,  or  union,  or  Latins  ?  far  from  us  be 
the  worship  of  the  Azymites  !" 

During  the  Winter  that  preceded  the  Turkish  conquest, 
the  nation  was  distracted  by  this  epidemical  frenzy  ;  and 
the  season  of  Lent,  the  approach  of  Easter,  instead  of 
breathing  charity  and  love,  served  only  to  fortify  the  ob- 
stinacy and  influence  of  the  zealots.  The  confessors 
scrutinized  and  alarmed  the  conscience  of  their  votaries, 
and  a  rigorous  penance  was  imposed  on  those  who  had 
received  the  communion  from  a  priest,  who  had  given  an 
express  or  tacit  consent  to  the  union.  His  service  at  the 
altar  propagated  the  infection  to  the  mute  and  simple 
spectators  of  the  ceremony  ;  they  forfeited,  by  the  im- 
pure spectacle,  the  virtue  of  the  sacerdotal  character  ; 
nor  was  it  lawful,  even  in  danger  of  sudden  death,  to  in- 
voke the  assistance  of  their  prayers  or  absolution. 

No  sooner  had  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  been  polluted 
by  the  Latin  sacrifice,  than  it  was  deserted  as  a  Jewish 
synagogue,  or  a  heathen  temple,  by  the  clergy  and  peo- 
ple ;  and  a  vast  and  gloomy  silence  prevailed  in  that  ven- 
erable dome,  which  had  so  often  smoked  with  a  cloud  of 
incense,  blazed  with  innumerable  lights,  and  resounded 


118  GREAT   EVENTS. 

with  the  voice  of  prayer  and  thanksgiving.  The  Latins 
were  the  most  odious  of  heretics  and  infidels  ;  and  the 
first  minister  of  the  empire,  the  great  Duke,  was  heard 
to  declare,  that  he  would  rather  behold  in  Constantinople, 
the  turban  of  Mahomet,  than  the  Pope's  tiara  or  a  cardinal's 
hat.  A  sentiment,  so  unworthy  of  Christians  and  patriots, 
was  familiar  and  fatal  to  the  Greeks  :  the  Emperor  was 
deprived  of  the  affection  and  support  of  his  subjects  ;  and 
their  native  cowardice  was  sanctified  by  resignation  to  the 
Divine  decree,  or  the  visionary  hope  of  a  miraculous  de- 
liverance. 

Of  the  triangle  which  composes  the  figure  of  Constan- 
tinople, the  two  sides,  along  the  sea,  were  made  inacces- 
sible to  an  enemy  ;  the  Propontis,  by  Nature,  and  the 
harbor  by  art.  Between  the  two  waters,  the  basis  of  the 
triangle,  the  land  side  was  protected  by  a  double  wall, 
and  a  deep  ditch  of  the  depth  of  one  hundred  feet. 
Against  this  line  of  fortification,  which  Phranza,  an  eye- 
witness, prolongs  to  the  measure  of  six  miles,*  the  Otto- 
mans directed  their  principal  attack  ;  and  the  Emperor, 
after  distributing  the  service  and  command  of  the  most 
perilous  stations,  undertook  the  defence  of  the  external 
wall. 

In  the  first  days  of  the  siege,  the  Greek  soldiers  de- 
scended into  the  ditch,  or  sallied  into  the  field  ;  but  they 
soon  discovered,  that,  in  the  proportion  of  their  numbers, 
one  Christian  was  of  more  value  than  twenty  Turks  ;  and, 
after  these  bold  preludes,  they  were  prudently  content  to 
maintain  the  rampart  with  their  missile  weapons.  Nor 
should  this  prudence  be  accused  of  pusillanimity.  The 
nation  was  indeed  pusillanimous  and  base  ;  but  the  last 
Constantino  deserves  the  name  of  a  hero  :  his  noble  band 
of  volunteers  was  inspired  with  Roman  virtue  ;  and  the 
foreign  auxiliaries  supported  the  honor  of  the  Western 
chivalry.  The  incessant  volleys  of  lances  and  arrows 
were  accompanied  with  tlio  smoke,  the  sound,  and  the 
fire,  of  their  musketry  and  cannon.  Their  small  arms  dis- 
charged, at  the  same  time,  either  five,  or  even  ten,  balls 

*  About  six  English  miles. 


CONQUEST   OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  119 

of  lead,  of  the  size  of  a  walnut ;  and,  according  to  the 
closeness  of  the  ranks  and  the  force  of  the  powder,  several 
breastplates  and  bodies  were  transpierced  by  the  same  shot. 

But  the  Turkish  approaches  were  soon  sunk  in  trench- 
es, or  covered  with  ruins.  Each  day  added  to  the  sci- 
ence of  the  Christians  ;  but  their  inadequate  stock  of 
gunpowder  was  wasted  in  the  operations  of  each  day. 
Their  ordnance  was  not  powerful,  either  in  size  or  num- 
ber ;  and  if  they  possessed  some  heavy  cannon,  they 
feared  to  plant  them  on  the  walls,  lest  the  aged  structure 
should  be  shaken  and  overthrown  by  the  explosion. 

The  same  destructive  secret  had  been  revealed  to  the 
Moslems  ;  by  whom  it  was  employed  with  the  superior 
energy  of  zeal,  riches,  and  despotism.  The  great  cannon 
of  Mohammed  was  an  important  and  visible  object  in  the 
history  of  the  times  ;  but  that  enormous  engine  was  flanked 
by  two  fellows  almost  of  equal  magnitude  :  the  long  order 
of  the  Turkish  artillery  was  pointed  against  the  walls  ;  four- 
teen batteries  thundered,  at  once,  on  the  most  accessible 
places  ;  and  of  one  of  these,  it  is  ambiguously  expressed, 
that  it  was  mounted  with  one  hundred  and  thirty  guns,  or 
that  it  discharged  one  hundred  and  thirty  bullets.  Yet,  in 
the  power  and  activity  of  the  Sultan,  we  may  discern  the 
infancy  of  the  new  science.  Under  a  master  who  count- 
ed the  moments,  the  great  cannon  could  be  loaded  and 
fired  no  more  than  seven  times  in  one  day.  The  heated 
metal  unfortunately  burst ;  several  workmen  were  destroy- 
ed, and  the  skill  of  an  artist  was  admired,  who  bethought 
himself  of  preventing  the  danger  and  the  accident,  by 
pouring  oil,  after  each  explosion,  into  the  mouth  of  the 
cannon. 

The  first  random  shots  were  productive  of  more  sound 
than  effect ;  and  it  was  by  the  advice  of  a  Christian,  that 
the  engineers  were  taught  to  level  their  aim  against  the  two 
opposite  sides  of  the  salient  angles  of  a  bastion.  How- 
ever imperfect,  the  weight  and  repetition  of  the  fire  made 
some  impression  on  the  walls  ;  and  the  Turks,  pushing 
their  approaches  to  the  edge  of  the  ditch,  attempted  to 
fill  the  enormous  chasm,  and  to  build  a  road  to  the  as- 
sault. Innumerable  fascines,  and  hogsheads,  and  trunks 


120  GREAT  EVENTS. 

of  trees,  were  heaped  on  each  other ;  and,  such  was  the 
impetuosity  of  the  throng,  that  the  foremost  and  the  weak- 
est were  pushed  headlong  down  the  precipice,  and  in- 
stantly buried  under  the  accumulated  mass.  To  fill  the 
ditch  was  the  toil  of  the  besiegers  ;  to  clear  away  the  rub- 
bish was  the  safety  of  the  besieged  ;  and,  after  a  long 
and  bloody  conflict,  the  web  that  had  been  woven  in  the 
day  was  still  unravelled  in  the  night. 

The  next  resource  of  Mohammed  was  the  practice  of 
mines  ;  but  the  soil  was  rocky  ;  in  every  attempt  he  was 
stopped  and  undermined  by  the  Christian  engineers  ;  nor 
had  the  art  been  yet  invented  of  replenishing  those  sub- 
terraneous passages  with  gunpowder,  and  blowing  whole 
towers  and  cities  into  the  air.  A  circumstance,  that  dis- 
tinguishes the  siege  of  Constantinople,  is  the  reunion  of  the 
ancient  and  modern  artillery.  The  cannon  were  inter- 
mingled with  the  mechanical  engines  for  casting  stones  and 
darts  ;  the  bullet  and  the  battering-ram  were  directed 
against  the  same  walls  ;  nor  had  the  discovery  of  gunpow- 
der superseded  the  use  of  the  liquid  and  inextinguishable 
fire.  A  wooden  turret,  of  the  largest  size,  was  advanced 
on  rollers  :  this  portable  magazine  of  ammunition  and 
fascines  was  protected  by  a  threefold  covering  of  bulls' 
hides  ;  incessant  volleys  were  securely  discharged  from 
the  loop-holes  ;  in  the  front,  three  doors  were  contrived 
for  the  alternate  sally  and  retreat  of  the  soldiers  and  work- 
men. They  ascended,  by  a  staircase,  to  the  upper  plat- 
form ;  and,  as  high  as  the  level  of  that  platform,  a  scaling 
ladder  could  be  raised  by  pulleys,  to  form  a  bridge,  and 
grapple  with  the  adverse  rampart.  By  these  various  arts 
of  annoyance,  some  as  new,  as  they  were  pernicious,  to 
the  Greeks,  the  tower  of  St.  Romanus  was  at  length 
overturned  :  after  a  severe  struggle,  the  Turks  were  re- 
pulsed from  the  breach,  and  interrupted  by  darkness  ;  but 
they  trusted,  that,  with  the  return  of  light,  they  should 
renew  the  attack,  with  fresh  vigor  and  decisive  success. 

Of  this  pause  of  action,  this  interval  of  hope,  each  mo- 
ment was  improvrd  by  the-  activity  of  the  Kmperor  and 
Justinian! ,  who  passed  the  night  on  the  spot,  and  urged 
the  labors  which  involved  the  safety  of  the  Church  and 


CONQUEST   OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  121 

city.  At  the  dawn  of  day,  the  impatient  Sultan  perceiv- 
ed, with  astonishment  and  grief,  that  his  wooden  turret 
had  been  reduced  to  ashes  :  the  ditch  was  cleared  and 
restored  ;  and  the  tower  of  St.  Rornanus  was  again  strong 
and  entire.  He  deplored  the  failure  of  his  design  ;  and 
uttered  a  profane  exclamation,  that  the  word  of  the  thirty- 
seven  thousand  prophets  should  not  have  compelled  him 
to  believe  that  such  a  work,  in  so  short  a  time,  could 
have  been  accomplished  by  the  Infidels. 

The  generosity  of  the  Christian  princes  was  cold  and 
tardy  'T  but,  in  the  first  apprehension  of  a  siege,  Constan- 
tine  had  negotiated,  in  the  isles  of  the  Archipelago,  the 
Morea,  and  Sicily,  the  most  indispensable  supplies.  As 
early  as  the  beginning  of  April,  five  great  ships,  equipped 
for  merchandise  and  war,  would  have  sailed  from  the 
harbor  of  Chios,  had  not  the  wind  blown,  obstinately,  from 
the  north.  One  of  these  ships  bore  the  Imperial  flag  ; 
the  remaining  four  belonged  to  the  Genoese  ;  and  they 
were  laden  with  wheat  and  barley,  with  wine,  oil,  and 
vegetables,  and,  above  all,  with  soldiers  and  mariners, 
for  the  service  of  the  capital.  After  a  tedious  delay,  a 
gentle  breeze,  and,  on  the  second  day,  a  strong  gale  from 
the  south,  carried  them  through  the  Hellespont  and  the 
Propontis  :  but  the  city  was  already  invested,  by  sea  and 
land  ;  and  the  Turkish  fleet,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bos- 
phorus,  was  stretched  from  shore  to  shore,  in  the  form 
of  a  crescent,  to  intercept,  or  at  least  to  repel,  these  bold 
auxiliaries. 

The  reader,  who  has  present  to  his  mind  the  geograph- 
ical picture  of  Constantinople,  will  conceive  and  admire 
the  greatness  of  the  spectacle.  The  five  Christian  ships 
continued  to  advance,  with  joyful  shouts,  and  a  full  press, 
both  of  sails  and  oars,  against  a  hostile  fleet  of  three  hun- 
dred vessels  ;  and  the  rampart,  the  camp,  the  coasts  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  were  lined  with  innumerable  spectators, 
who  anxiously  awaited  the  event  of  this  momentous  suc- 
cor. At  the  first  view,  that  event  could  not  appear  doubt- 
ful ;  the  superiority  of  the  Moslems  was  beyond  all  meas- 
ure or  account  ;  and,  in  a  calm,  their  numbers  and  valor 
must  inevitably  have  prevailed.  But  their  hasty  and  im- 

11  Q.    E, 


122  GREAT  EVENTS. 

perfect  navy  had  been  created,  not  by  the  genius  of  the 
people,  but  by  the  will  of  the  Sultan ;  in  the  height  of 
their  prosperity,  the  Turks  have  acknowledged,  that,  if 
God  had  given  them  the  earth,  He  had  left  the  sea  to  the 
Infidels  ;  and  a  series  of  defeats,  a  rapid  progress  of  de- 
cay, has  established  the  truth  of  their  modest  confession. 
Except  eighteen  galleys,  of  some  force,  the  rest  of  their 
fleet  consisted  of  open  boats,  rudely  constructed  and  awk- 
wardly managed,  crowded  with  troops,  and  destitute  of 
cannon  ;  and,  since  courage  arises,  in  a  great  measure, 
from  the  consciousness  of  strength,  the  bravest  of  the 
Janizaries  might  tremble  on  a  new  element.  In  the 
Christian  squadron,  five  stout  and  lofty  ships  were  guided 
by  skilful  pilots,  and  manned  with  the  veterans  of  Italy 
and  Greece,  long  practised  in  the  arts  and  perils  of  the 
sea.  Their  weight  was  directed  to  sink  or  scatter  the 
weak  obstacles  that  impeded  their  passage  ;  their  artillery 
swept  the  waters  ;  their  liquid  fire  was  poured  on  the 
heads  of  the  adversaries,  who,  with  the  design  of  board- 
ing, presumed  to  approach  them  ;  and  the  winds  and 
waves  are  always  on  the  side  of  the  ablest  navigators.  In 
this  conflict,  the  Imperial  vessel,  which  had  been  almost 
overpowered,  was  rescued  by  the  Genoese  ;  but  the 
Turks,  in  a  distant  and  closer  attack,  were  twice  repuls- 
ed, with  considerable  loss.  Mohammed,  himself,  sat  on 
horseback  on  the  beach,  to  encourage  their  valor  by  his 
voice  and  presence,  by  the  promise  of  reward,  and  by 
fear,  more  potent  than  the  fear  of  the  enemy.  The  pas- 
sions of  his  soul,  and  even  the  gestures  of  his  body,  seem- 
ed to  intimate  the  actions  of  the  combatants  ;  and,  as  if 
he  had  been  the  lord  of  Nature,  he  spurred  his  horse, 
with  a  fearless  and  impotent  effort,  into  the  sea.  His 
loud  reproaches,  and  the  clamors  of  the  camp,  urged  the 
Ottomans  to  a  third  attack,  more  fatal  and  bloody  than 
the  two  former ;  and  I  must  repeat,  though  I  cannot  cred- 
it, the  evidence  of  Phranza,  who  affirms,  from  their  own 
mouth,  that  they  lost  above  twelve  thousand  men  in  the 
slaughter  of  the  day.  They  fled,  in  disorder,  to  the  shores 
of  Kurope  and  Asia,  whilo  the  Christian  squadron,  trium- 
phant and  unhurt,  steered  along  the  Bosphorus,  and  se- 


CONQUEST  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  123 

curely  anchored  within  the  chain  of  the  harbor.  In  the 
confidence  of  victory,  they  boasted  that  the  whole  Turk- 
ish power  must  have  yielded  to  their  arms  ;  but  the  ad- 
miral or  captain  bashaw  found  some  consolation  for  a 
painful  wound  in  his  eye,  by  representing  that  accident  as 
the  cause  of  his  defeat.  Baltha  Ogli  was  a  renegade  of 
the  race  of  the  Bulgarian  princes  ;  his  military  character 
was  tainted  with  the  unpopular  vice  of  avarice  ;  and,  un- 
der the  despotism  of  the  prince  or  people,  misfortune  is  a 
sufficient  evidence  of  guilt.  His  rank  and  services  were 
annihilated,  by  the  displeasure  of  Mohammed.  In  the  royal 
presence,  the  captain  bashaw  was  extended  on  the  ground 
by  four  slaves,  and  received  one  hundred  strokes  with  a 
golden  rod  :  his  death  had  been  pronounced  ;  and  he 
adored  the  clemency  of  the  Sultan,  who  was  satisfied  with 
the  milder  punishment  of  confiscation  and  exile.  The  in- 
troduction of  this  supply  revived  the  hopes  of  the  Greeks, 
and  accused  the  supineness  of  their  western  allies.  Amidst 
the  deserts  of  Anatolia,  and  the  rocks  of  Palestine,  the 
millions  of  the  Crusaders  had  buried  themselves  in  a  vol- 
untary and  inevitable  grave  ;  but  the  situation  of  the  Im- 
perial city  was  strong  against  her  enemies,  and  accessible 
to  her  friends  ;  and  a  rational  and  moderate  armament  of 
the  maritime  states  might  have  saved  the  relics  of  the 
Roman  name,  and  maintained  a  Christian  fortress  in  the 
heart  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  Yet  this  was  the  sole  and 
feeble  attempt  for  the  deliverance  of  Constantinople  ;  the 
more  distant  powers  were  insensible  of  its  danger  ;  and 
the  ambassador  of  Hungary,  or,  at  least,  of  Huniades, 
resided  in  the  Turkish  camp,  to  remove  the  fears,  and 
to  direct  the  operations,  of  the  Sultan. 

It  was  difficult  for  the  Greeks  to  penetrate  the  secret 
of  the  Divan  ;  yet  the  Greeks  are  persuaded,  that  a  re- 
sistance, so  obstinate  and  surprising,  had  fatigued  the 
perseverance  of  Mohammed.  He  began  to  meditate  a 
retreat,  and  the  siege  would  have  been  speedily  raised,  if 
the  ambition  and  jealousy  of  the  second  vizier,  had  not 
opposed  the  perfidious  advice  of  Calil  Bashaw,*  who  still 

*  The  prime  vizier,  or  minister  of  the  Sultar       M  )  kiad  long  beeu 


124  GREAT   EVENTS. 

maintained  a  secret  Correspondence  with  the  Byzantine 
court.  The  reduction  of  the  city  appeared  to  be  hope- 
less, unless  a  double  attack  could  be  made,  from  the  har- 
bor, as  well  as  from  the  land  ;  but  the  harbor  was  inac- 
cessible ;  an  impenetrable  chain  was  now  defended  by 
eight  large  ships,  more  than  twenty  of  a  smaller  size,  with 
several  galleys  and  sloops  ;  and,  instead  of  forcing  this 
barrier,  the  Turks  might  apprehend  a  naval  sally,  and  a 
second  encounter  in  the  open  sea. 

In  this  perplexity,  the  genius  of  Mohammed  conceived 
and  executed  a  plan,  of  a  bold  and  marvellous  cast,  of 
transporting,  by  land,  his  lighter  vessels  and  military 
stores,  from  the  Bosphorus  into  the  higher  part  of  the 
harbor.  The  distance  is  about  ten  miles  ;  the  ground  is 
uneven,  and  was  overspread  with  thickets  ;  and,  as  the 
road  must  be  opened  behind  the  suburb  of  Galata,  their 
free  passage,  or  total  destruction,  must  depend  on  the 
option  of  the  Genoese.  But  these  selfish  merchants  were 
ambitious  of  the  favor  of  being  the  last  devoured  ;  and  the 
deficiency  of  art  was  supplied  by  the  strength  of  obedient 
myriads.  A  level  way  was  covered  with  a  broad  plat- 
form of  strong  and  solid  planks  ;  and,  to  render  them  more 
slippery  and  smooth,  they  v^ere  anointed  with  the  fat  of 
sheep  and  oxen.  Fourscore  light  galleys  and  brigantines, 
of  fifty  and  thirty  oars,  were  disembarked  on  the  Bospho- 
rus shore  ;  arranged  successively  on  rollers,  and  drawn 
forwards  by  the  power  of  men  and  pulleys.  Two  guides 
or  pilots  were  stationed  at  the  helm,  and  the  prow,  of 
each  vessel ;  the  sails  were  unfurled  to  the  winds  ;  and 
the  labor  was  cheered  by  song  and  acclamation. 

In  the  course  of  a  single  night,  this  Turkish  fleet  pain- 
fully climbed  the  hill,  steered  over  the  plain,  and  was 
launched  from  the  declivity  into  the  shallow  waters  of  the 
harbor,  far  above  the  molestation  of  the  deeper  vessels 
of  the  Greeks. 

The  real  importance  of  this  operation  was  magnified, 
by  the  consternation  and  confidence  which  it  inspired  ; 
but  the  notorious,  unquestionable  fact  was  displayed  be- 

engaged  in  a  treasonable  correspondence  with  the  Greeks,  which  was 
detected  and  punished  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war. 


CONQUEST  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  125 

fore  the  eyes,  and  is  recorded  by  the  pens,  of  the  two 
nations.  A  similar  stratagem  had  been  repeatedly  prac- 
tised by  the  ancients  :  the  Ottoman  galleys  (I  must  again 
repeat)  should  be  considered  as  large  boats  ;  and,  if  we 
compare  the  magnitude  and  the  distance,  the  obstacles 
and  the  means,  the  boasted  miracle  has,  perhaps,  been 
equalled  by  the  industry  of  our  own  times. 

As  soon  as  Mohammed  had  occupied  the  upper  har- 
bor, with  a  fleet  and  army,  he  constructed,  in  the  nar- 
rowest part,  a  bridge,  or  rather  mole,  of  fifty  cubits  in 
breadth,  and  one  hundred  in  length  ;  it  was  formed  of 
casks  and  hogsheads,  joined  with  rafters,  linked  with  iron, 
and  covered  with  a  solid  floor.  On  this  floating  battery, 
he  planted  one  of  his  largest  cannon,  while  the  fourscore 
galleys,  with  troops  and  scaling  ladders,  approached  the 
most  accessible  side,  which  had  formerly  been  stormed 
by  the  Latin  conquerors.  The  indolence  of  the  Chris- 
tians has  been  accused,  for  not  destroying  these  unfinished 
works  ;  but  their  fire,  by  a  superior  fire,  was  controlled 
and  silenced  ;  nor  were  they  wanting  in  a  nocturnal  at- 
tempt to  burn  the  vessels,  as  well  as  the  bridge,  of*the 
Sultan.  His  vigilance  prevented  their  approach  ;  their 
foremost  galliots  were  sunk,  or  taken  ;  forty  youths,  the 
bravest  of  Italy  and  Greece,  were  inhumanly  massacred 
at  his  command  ;  nor  could  the  Emperor's  grief  be  as- 
suaged by  the  just,  though  cruel  retaliation,  of  exposing 
from  the  walls,  the  heads  of  two  hundred  and  sixty  Mus- 
sulman captives. 

After  the  siege  of  forty  days,  the  fate  of  Constantinople 
could  no  longer  be  averted.  The  diminutive  garrison 
was  exhausted  by  a  double  attack  ;  the  fortifications,  which 
had  stood,  for  ages,  against  hostile  violence,  were  dis- 
mantled, on  all  sides,  by  the  Ottoman  cannon  ;  many 
breaches  were  opened  ;  and  near  the  gate  of  St.  Roma- 
nus,  four  towers  had  been  levelled  with  the  ground.  For 
the  payment  of  his  feeble  and  mutinous  troops,  Constan- 
tino was  compelled  to  despoil  the  churches,  with  the 
promise  of  a  fourfold  restitution  ;  and  his  sacrilege  offered 
a  new  reproach  to  the  enemies  of  the  union.  A  spirit  of 
discord  impaired  the  remnant  of  the  Christian  strength  : 
11*  ' 


126  GREAT  EVENTS. 

the  Genoese  and  Venetian  auxiliaries  asserted  the  pre- 
eminence of  their  respective  service  ;  and  Justiniani  and 
the  great  Duke,  whose  ambition  was  not  extinguished  by 
the  common  danger,  accused  each  other  of  treachery  and 
cowardice. 

During  the  siege  of  Constantinople,  the  words  of  peace 
and  capitulation  had  been  sometimes  pronounced  ;  and 
several  embassies  had  passed  between  the  camp  and  the 
city.  The  Greek  Emperor  was  humbled  by  adversity  ; 
and  would  have  yielded  to  any  terms,  compatible  with  re- 
ligion and  royalty.  The  Turkish  Sultan  was  desirous  of 
sparing  the  blood  of  his  soldiers  ;  still  more  desirous  of 
securing,  for  his  own  use,  the  Byzantine  treasures  ;  and 
he  accomplished  a  sacred  duty  in  presenting  to  the  Ga- 
bours,*  the  choice  of  circumcision,  of  tribute,  or  of  death. 
The  avarice  of  Mohammed  might  have  been  satisfied  with 
an  annual  sum  of  one  hundred  thousand  ducats  ;  but  his 
ambition  grasped  the  capital  of  the  East ;  to  the  Prince 
he  offered  a  rich  equivalent,  to  the  people,  a  free  tolera- 
tion, or  a  safe  departure  :  but,  after  some  fruitless  treaty, 
he  declared  his  resolution  of  finding  either  a  throne,  or  a 
grave,  under  the  walls  of  Constantinople.  A  sense  of 
honor,  and  the  fear  of  universal  reproach,  forbade  Palae- 
ologus  to  resign  the  city  into  the  hands  of  the  Ottomans  ; 
and  he  determined  to  abide  the  last  extremities  of  war. 

Several  days  were  employed  by  the  Sultan  in  the  pre 
parations  of  the  assault ;  and  a  respite  was  granted  by  his 
favorite  science  of  astrology,  which  had  fixed  on  the  twen- 
ty-ninth of  May,  as  the  fortunate  and  fatal  hour.  On  the 
evening  of  the  twenty-seventh,  he  issued  his  final  orders  ; 
assembled  in  his  presence  the  military  chiefs  ;  and  dis- 
persed his  heralds  through  the  camp,  to  proclaim  the  du- 
ty, and  the  motives  of  the  perilous  enterprise.  Fear  is 
the  first  principle  of  a  despotic  government ;  and  his  men- 
aces were  expressed  in  the  Oriental  style,  that  the  fugi- 
tives and  deserters,  had  they  the  wings  of  a  bird,  should 
not  escape  from  his  inexorable  justice.  The  greatest 
part  of  his  bashaws  and  Janizaries  were  the  offspring  of 

*  The  Turkish  name  for  Infidels, — same  as  Giaour. 


CONQUEST  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  127 

Christian  parents  ;  but  the  glories  of  the  Turkish  name 
were  perpetuated  by  successive  adoption  ;  and,  in  the 
gradual  change  of  individuals,  the  spirit  of  a  legion,  a  reg- 
iment, or  an  oda,  is  kept  alive  by  imitation  and  disci- 
pline. In  this  holy  warfare,  the  Moslems  were  exhorted 
to  purify  their  minds  with  prayer,  and  their  bodies  with 
seven  ablutions  ;  and  to  abstain  from  food,  till  the  close 
of  the  ensuing  day.  A  crowd  of  dervishes  visited  the 
tents,  to  instil  the  desire  of  martyrdom,  and  the  assurance 
of  spending  an  immortal  youth  amidst  the  rivers  and  gar- 
dens of  paradise,  and  in  the  embraces  of  the  black-eyed 
virgins.  Yet  Mohammed  principally  trusted  to  the  effi- 
cacy of  temporal  and  visible  rewards.  A  double  pay  was 
promised  to  the  victorious  troops.  "  The  city  and  the 
buildings,"  said  Mohammed,  "  are  mine  ;  but  I  resign  to 
your  valor  the  captives  and  the  spoil,  the  treasures  of  gold 
and  beauty  ;  be  rich,  and  be  happy.  -Many  are  the  prov- 
inces of  my  empire  :  the  intrepid  soldier,  who  first  ascends 
the  walls  of  Constantinople,  shall  be  rewarded  with  the 
government  of  the  fairest  and  most  wealthy  ;  and  my  grat- 
itude shall  accumulate  his  honors  and  fortunes  above  the 
measure  of  his  own  hopes."  Such  various  and  potent 
motives  diffused  among  the  Turks  a  general  ardor,  re- 
gardless of  life,  and  impatient  for  action.  The  camp  re- 
echoed with  the  Moslem  shouts  of,  u  God  is  God,  there 
is  but  one  God,  and  Mohammed  is  the  apostle  of  God  ;" 
and  the  sea  and  land,  from  Galata  to  the  Seven  Towers, 
were  illuminated  by  the  blaze  of  their  nocturnal  fires. 

Far  different  was  the  state  of  the  Christians  ;  who,  with 
loud  and  impotent  complaints,  deplored  the  guilt,  or  the 
punishment,  of  their  sins.  The  celestial  image  of  the 
Virgin  had  been  exposed  in  solemn  procession,  but  their 
divine  patroness  was  deaf  to  their  entreaties  ;  they  ac- 
cused the  obstinacy  of  the  Emperor,  for  refusing  a  timely 
surrender ;  anticipated  the  horrors  of  their  fate ;  and  sighed 
for  the  repose  and  security  of  Turkish  servitude.  The 
noblest  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  bravest  of  the  allies,  were 
summoned  to  the  palace,  to  prepare  them,  on  the  evening 
of  the  twenty-eighth,  for  the  duties  and  dangers  of  the 
general  assault.  The  last  speech  of  Palaeologus  was  the 


128  GREAT  EVENTS. 

funeral  oration  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;  he  promised,  he 
conjured,  and  he  vainly  attempted  to  infuse  the  hope 
which  was  extinguished  in  his  own  mind.  In  this  world, 
all  was  comfortless  and  gloomy  ;  and  neither  the  Gospel, 
nor  the  Church,  have  proposed  any  conspicuous  recom- 
pense to  the  heroes  who  fall  in  the  service  of  their  coun- 
try. But  the  example  of  their  Prince,  and  the  confine 
ment  of  a  siege,  had  armed  these  warriors  with  the  courage 
of  despair  ;  and  ^he  pathetic  scene  is  described  by  the 
feelings  of  the  historian,  Phranza,  who  was  himself  pres- 
ent at  this  mournful  assembly.  They  wept,  they  embraced; 
regardless  of  their  families  and  fortunes,  they  devoted 
their  lives  ;  and  each  commander,  departing  to  his  station, 
maintained,  all  night,  a  vigilant  and  anxious  watch  on  the 
rampart.  The  Emperor,  and  some  faithful  companions, 
entered  the  dome  of  St.  Sophia,  which,  in  a  few  hours, 
was  to  be  converted  into  a  mosque,  and  devoutly  received, 
with  tears  and  prayers,  the  sacrament  of  the  holy  com- 
munion. He  reposed,  some  moments,  in  the  palace, 
which  resounded  with  cries  and  lamentations,  solicited  the 
pardon  of  all  whom  he  might  have  injured,  and  mounted  on 
horseback,  to  visit  the  guards,  and  explore  the  motions 
of  the  enemy.  The  distress  and  fall  of  the  last  Constan- 
tine  are  more  glorious,  than  the  long  prosperity  of  the 
Byzantine  Caesars. 

In  the  confusion  of  darkness,  an  assailant  may  some- 
times succeed  ;  but,  in  this  great  and  general  attack,  the 
military  judgement,  and  astrological  knowledge  of  Mo- 
hammed, advised  him  to  expect  the  morning,  the  memo- 
rable twenty-ninth  of  May,  in  the  fourteen  hundred  and 
fifty-third  year  of  the  Christian  era.  The  preceding  night 
had  been  strenuously  employed  ;  the  troops,  the  cannon, 
and  the  fascines,  were  advanced  to  the  edge  of  the  ditch, 
which,  in  many  parts,  presented  a  smooth  and  level  pas- 
sage to  the  breach  ;  and  his  fourscore  galleys  almost 
touched  witli  the  prows,  and  their  scaling-ladders,  the  less 
defen-iMo  \v;ills  of  the  harbor.  Under  pain  of  death,  si- 
ILMK-G  was  enjoined  ;  but  the  physical  laws  of  motion  and 
sound,  are  not  obedient  to  discipline  or  fear  ;  each  indi- 
vidual might  suppress  his  voice,  and  measure  his  foot- 


CONQUEST   OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  129 

steps,  but  the  march  and  labor  of  thousands  must  inevi- 
tably produce  a  strange  confusion  of  dissonant  clamors, 
which  reached  the  ears  of  the  watchmen  of  the  towers. 

At  daybreak,  without  the  customary  signal  of  the  morn- 
ing gun,  the  Turks  assaulted  the  city,  by  sea  and  land  ; 
and  the  similitude  of  a  twined  or  twisted  thread  has  been 
applied  to  the  closeness  and  continuity  of  their  line  of 
attack.  The  foremost  ranks  consisted  of  the  refuse  of 
the  host,  a  voluntary  crowd,  who  fought  without  order  or 
command  ;  of  the  feebleness  of  age  or  childhood,  of  peas- 
ants and  vagrants,  and  of  all  who  had  joined  the  camp  in 
the  blind  hope  of  plunder  and  martyrdom.  The  common 
impulse  drove  them  onwards  to  the  wall  :  the  most  auda- 
cious to  climb  were  instantly  precipitated  ;  and  not  a 
dart,  nor  a  bullet,  of^the  Christians,  was  idly  wasted  on 
the  accumulated  throng.  But  their  strength  and  ammuni- 
tion were  exhausted  in  this  laborious  defence  ;  the  ditch 
was  filled  with  the  bodies  of  the  slain  ;  they  supported 
the  footsteps  of  their  companions  ;  and  of  this  devoted 
vanguard,  the  death  was  more  serviceable  than  the  life. 

Under  their  respective  bashaws  and  sanjaks,*  the  troops 
of  Anatolia  and  Romania  were  successively  led  to  the 
charge.  Their  progress  was  various  and  doubtful  ;  but, 
after  a  conflict  of  two  hours,  the  Greeks  still  maintained 
and  improved  their  advantage  ;  and  the  voice  of  the  Em- 
peror was  heard,  encouraging  his  soldiers  to  achieve,  by 
a  last  effort,  the  deliverance  of  their  country.  In  that 
fatal  moment,  the  Janizaries  arose,  fresh,  vigorous,  and 
invincible.  The  Sultan  himself,  on  horseback,  with  an 
iron  mace  in  his  hand,  was  the  spectator  and  judge  of 
their  valor.  He  was  surrounded  by  ten  thousand  of  his 
domestic  troops,  whom  he  reserved  for  the  decisive  oc- 
casions, and  the  tide  of  battle  was  directed  and  impelled, 
by  his  voice  and  eye.  His  numerous  ministers  of  justice 
were  posted  behind  the  line,  to  urge,  to  restrain,  and  to 
punish  ;  and,  if  danger  was  in  the  front,  shame  and  inev- 

*  Sanjak,  or  Sangiac,  (Turkish,  horsetail,)  signifies,  in  the  Turk- 
ish army,  an  officer  who  is  allowed  to  bear  only  one  horsetail,  the 
pachas  having  two  or  three.     The  Sangiac  is  also  commonly  the  gov 
ernor  of  a  smaller  district  of  country,  than  a  pachalic. 


130  GREAT  EVENTS. 

itable  death  were  in  the  rear  of  the  fugitives.  The  cries 
of  fear  and  of  pain  were  drowned  in  the  martial  music  of 
drums,  trumpets,  and  attaballs  ;  and  experience  has  proved, 
that  the  mechanical  operation  of  sounds,  by  quickening 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  and  spirits,  will  act  on  the 
human  machine  more  forcibly  than  the  eloquence  of  rea- 
son and  honor.  From  the  lines,  the  galleys,  and  the 
bridge,  the  Ottoman  artillery  thundered  on  all  sides  ;  and 
the  camp  and  city,  the  Greeks  and  the  Turks,  were  in- 
volved in  a  cloud  of  smoke,  which  could  only  be  dispelled 
by  the  final  deliverance  or  destruction  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. 

The  single  combats  of  the  heroes  of  history  or  fable 
amuse  our  fancy,  and  engage  our  affections  ;  the  skilful 
evolutions  of  war  may  inform  the  mind,  and  improve  a 
necessary  though  pernicious  science.  But,  in  the  uniform 
and  odious  pictures  of  a  general  assault,  all  is  blood,  and 
horror,  and  confusion  ;  nor  shall  I  strive,  at  the  distance 
of  three  centuries,  and  a  thousand  miles,  to  delineate  a 
scene,  of  which  there  could  be  no  spectators,  and  of  which 
the  actors  themselves  were  incapable  of  forming  any  just 
or  adequate  idea. 

The  immediate  loss  of  Constantinople  may  be  ascribed 
to  the  bullet,  or  arrow,  which  pierced  the  gauntlet  of 
John  Justiniani.  The.  sight  of  his  blood,  and  the  exqui- 
site pain,  appalled  the  courage  of  the  chief,  whose  arms 
and  counsels  were  the  firmest  rampart  of  the  city.  As 
he  withdrew  from  his  station  in  quest  of  a  surgeon,  his 
flight  was  perceived  and  stopped  by  the  indefatigable  Em- 
peror. "  Your  wound,"  exclaimed  Palacologus,  "  is 
slight ;  the  danger  is  pressing  ;  your  presence  is  necessa- 
ry ;  and  whither  will  you  retire  ?"  "  I  will  retire,"  said 
the  trembling  Genoese,  "  by  the  same  road  which  God 
has  opened  to  the  Turks  ;"  and,  at  these  words,  he  has- 
tily passed  through  one  of  the  breaches  of  the  inner  wall. 
By  this  pusillanimous  act,  he  stained  the  honors  of  a  mil- 
itary life  ;  and  the  few  days  which  he  survived  in  Galata, 
or  the  isle  of  Chios,  were  embittered  by  his  own  and  the 
public  reproach.  His  example  was  imitated  by  the  great- 
est part  of  the  Latin  auxiliaries,  and  the  defence  began 


CONQUEST  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.        131 

to  slacken,  when  the  attack  was  pressed  with  redoubled 
vigor.  The  number  of  the  Ottomans  was  fifty,  perhaps 
a  hundred,  times  superior  to  that  of  the  Christians.  The 
double  walls  were  reduced  by  the  cannon  to  a  heap  of 
ruins.  In  a  circuit  of  several  miles,  some  places  must 
be  found  more  easy  of  access,  or  more  feebly  guarded  ; 
and,  if  the  besiegers  could  penetrate  in  a  single  point,  the 
whole  city  was  irrecoverably  lost.  The  first  who  deser- 
ved the  Sultan's  reward  was  Hassan  the  Janizary,  of  gi 
gantic  stature  and  strength.  With  his  cimeter  in  one  hand, 
and  his  buckler  in  the  other,  he  ascended  the  outward 
fortification.  Of  the  thirty  Janizaries,  who  were  emulous 
of  his  valor,  eighteen  perished  in  the  bold  adventure. 
Hassan  and  his  twelve  companions  had  reached  the  sum- 
mit ;  the  giant  was  precipitated  from  the  rampart  ;  he 
rose  on  one  knee,  and  was  again  oppressed  by  a  shower 
of  darts  and  stones.  But  his  success  had  proved,  that  the 
achievement  was  possible  :  the  walls  and  towers  were  in- 
stantly covered  with  a  swarm  of  Turks  ;  and  the  Greeks, 
now  driven  from  the  vantage  ground,  were  overwhelmed 
by  increasing  multitudes. 

Amidst  these  multitudes,  the  Emperor,  who  accom- 
plished all  the  duties  of  a  general  and  a  soldier,  was  long 
seen,  and  finally  lost.  The  nobles,  who  fought  round  his 
person,  sustained,  till  their  last  breath,  the  honorable  names 
of  Palaeologus  and  Cantacuzene.  His  mournful  exclama- 
tion was  heard,  "  Cannot  there  be  found  a  Christian  to 
cut  off  my  head  ?"  and  his  last  fear  was  that  of  falling, 
alive,  into  the  hands  of  the  infidels.  The  prudent  despair 
of  Constantine  cast  away  the  purple.  Amidst  the  tumult, 
he  fell  by  an  unknown  hand,  and  his  body  was  buried  un- 
der a  mountain  of  the  slain. 

After  his  death,  resistance  and  order  were  no  more. 
The  Greeks  fled  toward  the  city  ;  and  many  were  press- 
ed and  stifled  in  the  narrow  pass  of  the  gate  of  St. 
Romanus.  The  victorious  Turks  rushed  through  the 
breaches  of  the  inner  wall ;  and,  as  they  advanced  into 
the  streets,  they  were  soon  joined  by  their  brethren, 
who  had  forced  the  gate  Phenar,  on  the  side  of  the  harbor. 
In  the  first  heat  of  the  pursuit,  above  two  thousand  Chris- 


132  GREAT  EVENTS. 

tians  were  put  to  the  sword  ;  but  avarice  soon  prevailed 
over  cruelty  ;  and  the  victors  acknowledged,  that  they 
should  immediately  have  given  quarter,  if  the  valor  of  the 
Emperor  and  his  chosen  bands  had  not  prepared  them  for 
a  similar  opposition  in  every  part  of  the  capital. 

It  was  thus,  after  a  siege  of  fifty-three  days,  that  Con- 
stantinople, which  had  defied  the  power  of  Chosroes,  the 
Chagan,  and  the  caliphs,  was  irretrievably  subdued  by  the 
arms  of  Mohammed  the  Second.  Her  empire,  only,  had 
been  subverted  by  the  Latins  ;  her  religion  was  trampled 
in  the  dust,  by  the  Moslem  conquerors. 

The  tidings  of  misfortune  fly  with  a  rapid  wing  ;  yet, 
such  was  the  extent  of  Constantinople,  that  the  more  dis 
tant  quarters  might  prolong,  some  moments,  the  happy  ig- 
norance of  their  ruin.  But,  in  the  general  consternation, 
in  the  feelings  of  selfish  or  social  anxiety,  in  the  tumult 
and  thunder  of  the  assault,  a  sleepless  night  and  morning 
must  have  elapsed  ;  nor  can  I  believe  that  many  Grecian 
ladies  were  awakened  by  the  Janizaries  from  a  sound  and 
tranquil  slumber.  On  the  assurance  of  the  public  calami- 
ty, the  houses  and  convents  were  instantly  deserted  ;  and 
the  trembling  inhabitants  flocked  together,  in  the  streets, 
like  a  herd  of  timid  animals  ;  as  if  accumulated  weakness 
could  be  productive  of  strength,  or  in  the  vain  hope,  that, 
amid  the  crowd,  each  individual  might  be  safe  and  invisi- 
ble. From  every  part  of  the  capital,  they  flowed  into  the 
church  of  St.  Sophia.  In  the  space  of  an  hour,  the  sanc- 
tuary, the  choir,  the  nave,  the  upper  and  lower  galleries, 
were  filled  with  the  multitude  of  fathers  and  husbands, 
of  women  and  children,  of  priests,  monks,  and  religious 
virgins.  The  doors  were  barred  on  the  inside,  and  they 
sought  protection  from  the  sacred  dome,  which  they  had 
so  lately  abhorred  as  a  profane  and  polluted  edifice. 
Their  confidence  was  founded  on  the  prophecy  of  an  en- 
thusiast or  impostor  ;  that,  one  dny,  the  Turks  would  enter 
Constantinople,  and  pursue  the  Romans  as  far  as  the  col- 
umn of  ConsUiniiiH!  in  the  square  before  St.  Sophia  ;  but 
that  this  \voiild  !><•  the  term  of  their  calamities  ;  that  an 
angel  would  descend  from  heaven,  with  a  suord  in  his 
hand,  and  would  deliver  the  empire,  with  that  celestial 


CONQUEST  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  133 

weapon,  to  a  poor  man,  seated  at  the  foot  of  the  column. 
"  Take  this  sword,"  would  he  say,  "  and  avenge  the  peo- 
ple of  the  Lord."  At  these  animating  words,  the  Turks 
would  instantly  fly,  and  the  victorious  Romans  would 
drive  them  from  the  West,  and  from  all  Anatolia,  as  far 
as  the  frontiers  of  Persia.  It  is  on  this  occasion,  that 
Ducas,  with  some  fancy  and  much  truth,  upbraids  the  dis- 
cord and  obstinacy  of  the  Greeks.  "  Had  that  angel 
appeared,"  exclaims  the  historian,  "  had  he  offered  to 
exterminate  your  foes,  if  you  would  consent  to  the  union 
of  the  Church,  even  then,  in  that  fatal  nioment,  you  would 
have  rejected  your  safety,  or  have  deceived  your  God." 
While  they  expected  the  descent  of  the  tardy  angel,  the 
doors  were  broken  with  axes  ;  and,  as  the  Turks  encoun- 
tered no  resistance,  their  bloodless  hands  were  employed 
in  selecting  and  securing  the  multitude  of  their  prisoners. 
Youth,  beauty,  and  the  appearance  of  wealth,  attracted 
their  choice  ;  and  the  right  of  property  was  decided  among 
themselves  by  a  prior  seizure,  by  personal  strength,  and 
by  the  authority  of  command.  In  the  space  of  an  hour, 
the  male  captives  were  bound  with  cords,  the  females 
with  their  veils  and  girdles.  The  senators  were  linked 
with  their  slaves  ;  the  prelates  with  the  porters  of  the 
church  ;  and  young  men  of  a  plebeian  class,  with  noble 
maids,  whose  faces  had  been  invisible  to  the  sun  and  their 
nearest  kindred.  In  this  common  captivity,  the  ranks  of 
society  were  confounded  ;  the  ties  of  Nature  were  cut 
asunder  ;  and  the  inexorable  soldier  was  careless  of  the 
father's  groans,  the  tears  of  the  mother,  and  the  lamenta- 
tions of  the  children.  The  loudest  in  their  wailings  were 
the  nuns,  who  were  torn  from  the  altar  with  naked 
bosoms,  outstretched  hands,  and  dishevelled  hair  ;  and 
we  should  piously  believe,  that  few  could  be  tempted  to 
prefer  the  vigils  of  the  harem  to  those  of  the  monastery. 
Of  these  unfortunate  Greeks,  of  these  domestic  animals, 
whole  strings  were  rudely  driven  through  the  streets  ;  and, 
as  the  conquerors  were  eager  to  return  for  more  prey, 
their  trembling  pace  was  quickened  with  menaces  and 
blows.  At  the  same  hour,  a  similar  rapine  was  exercis- 
ed in  all  the  churches  and  monasteries,  in  all  the  palaces 

12  G.   E. 


134  GREAT  EVENTS. 

and  habitations  of  the  capital ;  nor  could  any  place,  how- 
ever sacred  or  sequestered,  protect  the  persons  or  the 
property  of  the  Greeks. 

Above  sixtylhousand  of  this  devoted  people  were  trans- 
ported from  the  city  to  the  camp  and  fleet ;  exchanged 
or  sold,  according  to  the  caprice  or  interest  of  their  mas- 
ters, and  dispersed  in  remote  servitude,  through  the  prov- 
inces of  the  Ottoman  empire.  Among  these,  we  may 
notice  some  remarkable  characters.  The  historian  Phran- 
za,  first  chamberlain  and  principal  secretary,  was  involved, 
with  his  family,  in  the  common  lot.  After  suffering  four 
months  the  hardships  of  slavery,  he  recovered  his  free- 
dom. In  the  ensuing  Winter,  he  ventured  to  Adrianople, 
and  ransomed  his  wife  from  the  mir  bashi,  or  master  of 
the  horse  ;  but  his  two  children,  in  the  flower  of  youth 
and  beauty,  had  been  seized  for  the  use  of  Mohammed 
himself.  The  daughter  of  Phranza  died  in  the  seraglio, 
perhaps  a  virgin.  His  son,  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  his  age, 
preferred  death  to  infamy,  and  was  stabbed  by  the  hand 
of  the  Sultan.  A  deed  thus  inhuman  cannot,  surely,  be 
expiated  by  the  taste  and  liberality  with  which  he  released 
a  Grecian  matron,  and  her  two  daughters,  on  receiving 
a  Latin  ode  from  Philelphus,  who  had  chosen  a  wife  in 
that  noble  family.  The  pride  or  cruelty  of  Mohammed 
would  have  been  most  sensibly  gratified  by  the  capture  of 
a  Roman  legate  ;  but  the  dexterity  of  Cardinal  Isidore 
eluded  the  search,  and  he  escaped  from  Galata,  in  a  ple- 
beian habit. 

The  chain  and  entrance  of  the  outward  harbor  was  still 
occupied  by  the  Italian  ships  of  merchandise  and  war. 
They  had  signalized  their  valor  in  the  siege  ;  they  em- 
braced the  moment  of  retreat,  while  the  Turkish  mariners 
were  dissipated  in  the  pillage  of  the  city.  When  they 
hoisted  sail,  the  beach  was  covered  with  a  suppliant  and 
lamentable  crowd.  But  the  means  of  transportation  were 
scanty.  The  Venetians  and  Genoese  selected  their  coun- 
trymen ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  fairest  promises  of  the 
Sultan,  tho  inhabitants  of  Galata  evacuated  their  houses, 
and  embarked  with  thuir  most  precious  effects. 
.  In  the  fall  and  the  sack  of  great  cities,  an  historian  is 


CONQUEST   OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  135 

condemned  to  repeat  the  tale  of  uniform  calamity  ;  the 
same  effects  must  by  produced  by  the  same  passions  ;  and, 
when  those  passions  may  be  indulged  without  control, 
small,  alas  !  is  the  difference  between  civilized  and  sav- 
age man.  Amidst  the  vague  exclamations  of  bigotry  and 
hatred,  the  Turks  are  not  accused  of  a  wanton  or  immod- 
erate effusion  of  Christian  blood  ;  but,  according  to  their 
maxims,  (the  maxims  of  antiquity,)  the  lives  of  the  van- 
quished were  forfeited  ;  and  the  legitimate  reward  of  the 
conqueror  was  derived  from  the  service,  the  sale,  or  the 
ransom,  of  his  captives,  of  both  sexes.  The  wealth  of 
Constantinople  had  been  granted  by  the  Sultan  to  his  vic- 
torious troops  ;  and  the  rapine  of  an  hour  is  more  produc- 
tive than  the  industry  of  years.  But,  as  no  regular  divis- 
ion was  attempted  of  the  spoil,  the  respective  shares 
were  not  determined  by  merit  ;  and  the  rewards  of  valor 
were  stolen  away  by  the  followers  of  the  camp,  who  had 
declined  the  toil  and  danger  of  the  battle.  The  narrative 
of  their  depredations  could  not  afford  either  amusement 
or  instruction.  The  total  amount,  in  the  last  poverty  of 
the  empire,  has  been  valued  at  four  millions  of  ducats  ;* 
and,  of  this  sum,  a  small  part  was  the  property  of  the  Ve- 
netians, the  Genoese,  the  Florentines,  and  the  merchants 
of  Ancona.  Of  these  foreigners,  the  stock  was  improved 
in  quick  and  perpetual  circulation.  But  the  riches  of  the 
Greeks  were  displayed  in  the  idle  ostentation  of  palaces 
and  wardrobes,  or  deeply  buried  in  treasures  of  ingots 
and  old  coin,  lest  it  should  be  demanded  at  their  hands, 
for  the  defence  of  their  country. 

The  profanation  and  plunder  of  the  monasteries  and 
churches  excited  the  most  tragic  complaints.  The  dome 
of  St.  Sophia  itself,  the  earthly  heaven,  the  second  firma- 
ment, the  vehicle  of  the  cherubim,  the  throne  of  the  glory 
of  God,  was  despoiled  of  the  oblations  of  ages  ;  and  the 
gold  and  silver,  the  pearls  and  jewels,  the  vases  and  sac- 
erdotal ornaments,  were  most  wickedly  converted  to  the 
service  of  mankind.  After  the  divine  images  had  been 
stripped  of  all  that  could  be  valuable  to  a  profane  eye,  the 

*  A  ducat  is  a  gold  coin, — value  about  $2,07£  cts. 


136  GREAT   EVENTS. 

canvass,  or  the  wood,  was  torn,  or  broken,  or  burnt,  or 
trod  under  foot,  or  applied,  in  the  stables,  or  the  kitchen, 
to  the  vilest  uses.  The  example  of  sacrilege  was  imita- 
ted, however,  from  the  Latin  conquerors  of  Constantino- 
ple. 

Perhaps,  instead  of  joining  the  public  clamor,  a  phi- 
losopher will  observe,  that,  in  the  decline  of  the  arts,  the 
workmanship  could  not  be  more  valuable  than  the  work. 
He  will  more  seriously  deplore  the  loss  of  the  Byzantine 
libraries,  which  were  destroyed  or  scattered,  in  the  general 
confusion.  One  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  manuscripts 
are  said  to  have  disappeared  ;  ten  volumes  might  be  pur- 
chased for  a  single  ducat ;  and  the  same  ignominious  price 
included  the  whole  works  of  Aristotle  and  Homer,  the  no- 
blest productions  of  the  science  and  literature  of  ancient 
Greece.  We  may  reflect,  with  pleasure,  that  an  inesti- 
mable portion  of  our  classic  treasures  was  safely  deposi- 
ted in  Italy  ;  and  that  the  mechanics  of  a  German  town 
had  invented  an  art,  which  derides  the  havoc  of  time  and 
barbarism. 

From  the  first  hour  of  the  memorable  twenty-ninth  of 
May,  disorder  and  rapine  prevailed  in  Constantinople,  till 
the  eighth  hour  of  the  same  day  ;  when  the  Sultan  himself 
passed,  in  triumph,  through  the  gate  of  St.  Romanus.  He 
was  attended  by  his  viziers,  bashaws,  and  guards,  each  of 
whom  (says  a  Byzantine  historian)  was  robust  as  Hercu- 
les, dexterous  as  Apollo,  and  equal  in  battle  to  any  ten 
of  the  race  of  ordinary  mortals.  The  conqueror  gazed, 
with  satisfaction  and  wonder,  on  the  strange  though  splen- 
did appearance  of  the  domes  and  palaces,  so  dissimilar 
from  the  style  of  Oriental  architecture.  In  the  hippo- 
drome, or  atmeidan,  his  eye  was  attracted  by  the  twist- 
ed column  of  the  three1  serpents  ;  and,  as  a  trial  of  his 
strength,  he  shattered,  with  his  iron  mace  or  battle-axe, 
the  under  jaw  of  one  of  these  monsters,  which,  in  the  eyes 
of  the  Turks,  were  the  idols,  or  talismans  of  the  city. 

At  the  principal  door  of  St.  Sophia,  he  alighted  from 
his  horse,  and  entered  the  dome  ;  and,  such  was  his  jealous 
regard  for  that  monument  of  his  glory,  that,  on  observing 
a  zealous  Mussulman  in  the  act  of  breaking  the  marble 


CONQUEST   OP  CONSTANTINOPLE.  137 

pavement,  he  admonished  him,  with  his  cimeter,  that,  if 
the  spoil  and  captives  were  granted  to  the  soldiers,  the 
public  and  private  buildings  had  been  reserved  for  the 
Prince.  By  his  command,  the  metropolis  of  the  Eastern 
Church  was  transformed  into  a  mosque  ;  the  rich  and  por- 
table instruments  of  superstition  had  been  removed  ;  the 
crosses  were  thrown  down  ;  and  the  walls,  which  were 
covered  with  images  and  mosaics,  were  washed  and  pu- 
rified, and  restored  to  a  state  of  naked  simplicity. 

On  the  same  day,  or  on  the  ensuing  Friday,  the  muez- 
zin, or  crier,  ascended  the  most  lofty  turret,  and  proclaimed 
the  ezan,  or  public  invitation  in  the  name  of  God  and  his 
Prophet  ;  the  imam  preached  ;  and  Mohammed  the  Sec- 
ond performed  the  namaz  of  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  on 
the  great  altar,  where  the  Christian  mysteries  had  so  lately 
been  celebrated  before  the  last  of  the  Caesars.  From  St. 
Sophia  he  proceeded  to  the  august  but  desolate  man- 
sion of  a  hundred  successors  of  the  great  Constantine  ;  but 
which,  in  a  few  hours,  had  been  stripped  of  the  pomp  of 
royalty.  A  melancholy  reflection,  on  the  vicissitudes  of 
human  greatness,  forced  itself  on  his  mind  ;  and  he  re- 
peated an  elegant  distich  of  Persian  poetry  :  u  The  spi- 
der has  wove  his  web  in  the  Imperial  palace  ;  and  the 
owl  hath  sung  her  watch-song  on  the  towers  of  Afrasiab." 

Yet  his  mind  was  not  satisfied,  nor  did  the  victory  seem 
complete,  till  he  was  informed  of  the  fate  of  Constantine  ; 
whether  he  had  escaped,  or  been  made  prisoner,  or  had 
fallen  in  the  battle.  Two  Janizaries  claimed  the  honor 
and  reward  of  his  death  ;  the  body,  under  a  heap  of  slain, 
was  discovered  by  the  golden  eagles  embroidered  on  his 
shoes.  The  Greeks  acknowledged,  with  tears,  the  head  of 
their  late  Emperor ;  and,  after  exposing  the  bloody  trophy, 
Mohammed  bestowed  on  his  rival  the  honors  of  a  decent 
funeral.  After  his  decease,  Lucas  Notaras,  great  duke, 
and  first  minister  of  the  Empire,  was  the  most  important 
prisoner.  When  he  offered  his  person  and  his  treasures 
at  the  foot  of  the  throne, — "  And  why,"  said  the  indignant 
Sultan,  "  did  you  not  employ  these  treasures  in  the  de- 
fence of  your  prince  and  country  ?"  "They  were  yours," 
answered  the  slave  ;  "  God  had  reserved  them  for  your 


133  GREAT  EVENTS. 

hands."  u  If  he  reserved  them  for  me,"  replied  the 
despot,  "  how  have  you  presumed  to  withhold  them  so 
long,  by  a  fruitless  and  fatal  resistance  ?"  The  great 
duke  alleged  the  obstinacy  of  the  strangers,  and  some  se- 
cret encouragement  from  the  Turkish  vizier ;  and,  from 
this  perilous  interview,  he  was  at  length  dismissed,  with  the 
assurance  of  pardon  and  protection.  Mohammed  conde- 
scended to  visit  his  wife,  a  venerable  princess,  oppressed 
with  sickness  and  grief ;  and  his  consolation  for  her  mis- 
fortunes was  in  the  most  tender  strain  of  humanity  and 
filial  reverence. 

A  similar  clemency  was  extended  to  the  principal  offi- 
cers of  state,  of  whom,  several  were  ransomed  at  his  ex- 
pense ;  and,  during  some  days,  he  declared  himself  the 
friend  and  father  of  the  vanquished  people.  But  the  scene 
was  soon  changed  ;  and,  before  his  departure,  the  hippo- 
drome streamed  with  the  blood  of  his  noblest  captives. 
His  perfidious  cruelty  is  execrated  by  the  Christians  ;  they 
adorn,  with  the  colors  of  heroic  martyrdom,  the  execu- 
tion of  the  great  duke,  and  his  two  sons  ;  and  his  death 
is  ascribed  to  the  generous  refusal  of  delivering  his  chil- 
dren to  the  tyrant's  lust.  Yet  a  Byzantine  historian  has 
dropped  an  unguarded  word  of  conspiracy,  deliverance,  and 
Italian  succor.  Such  treason  may  be  glorious  ;  but  the 
rebel,  who  bravely  ventures,  has  justly  forfeited  his  life  ; 
nor  should  we  blame  a  conqueror,  for  destroying  the  ene- 
mies, whom  he  can  no  longer  trust.  On  the  eighteenth 
of  June,  the  victorious  Sultan  returned  to  Adrianople  ; 
and  smiled  at  the  base  and  hollow  embassies  of  the  Chris- 
tian princes,  who  viewed  their  approaching  ruin  in  the  fall 
of  the  Eastern  empire. 

Constantinople  had  been  left  naked  and  desolate,  with- 
out a  prince  or  a  people.  But  she  could  not  be  despoil- 
ed of  the  incomparable  situation  which  marks  her  for  the 
metropolis  of  a  great  empire  ;  and  the  genius  of  the  place 
will  ever  triumph  over  the  accidents  of  time  and  fortune. 
Boursa  and  Adrianople,  the  ancient  seats  of  the  Ottomans, 
sui.k  into  provincial  towns  ;  and  Mohammed  the  Second 
established  his  own  residence,  and  that  of  his  successors, 
on  the  same  commanding  spot,  which  had  been  chosen  by 


CONQUEST   OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  139 

Constantine.  The  fortifications  of  Galata,  which  might 
afford  a  shelter  to  the  Latins,  were  prudently  destroyed  ; 
but  the  damage  of  the  Turkish  cannon  was  soon  repaired; 
and,  before  the  month  of  August,  great  quantities  of  lime 
had  been  burnt,  for  the  restoration  of  the  walls  of  the  cap- 
ital. As  the  entire  property  of  the  soil  and  buildings, 
whether  public  or  private,  profane  or  sacred,  was  now 
transferred  to  the  conqueror,  he  first  separated  a  space  of 
eight  furlongs  from  the  point  of  the  triangle  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  his  seraglio,  or  palace.  It  is  here,  in  the 
bosom  of  luxury,  that  the  grand  signior  (as  he  has  been 
emphatically  named,  by  the  Italians)  appears  to  reign  over 
Europe  and  Asia  ;  but  his  person  on  the  shores  of  the 
Bosphorus  may  not  always  he  secure  from  the  insults  of 
a  hostile  navy.  In  the  new  character  of  a  mosque,  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Sophia  was  endowed  with  an  ample  rev- 
enue, crowned  with  lofty  minarets,  and  surrounded  with 
groves  and  fountains,  for  the  devotion  and  refreshment  of 
the  Moslems.  The  same  model  was  imitated  in  the  Jami, 
or  royal  mosques  ;  and  the  first  of  these  was  built,  by  Mo- 
hammed himself,  on  the  ruins  of  the  church  of  the  holy 
apostles,  and  the  tombs  of  the  Greek  emperors.  On  the 
third  day  after  the  conquest,  the  grave  of  Abou  Ayub,  or 
Job,  who  had  fallen  in  the  first  siege  of  the  Arabs,  was  re- 
veaied  in  a  vision  ;  and  it  is  before  the  sepulchre  of  the 
martyr,  that  the  new  Sultans  are  girded  with  the  sword  of 
empire.  Constantinople  no  longer  appertains  to  the  Ro- 
man historian  ;  nor  shall  I  enumerate  the  civil  and  relig- 
ious edifices  that  were  profaned  or  erected  by  its  Turkish 
masters.  The  population  was  speedily  renewed  ;  and,  be- 
fore the  end  of  September,  five  thousand  families  of 
Anatolia  and  Romania  had  obeyed  the  royal  mandate, 
which  enjoined  them,  under  pain  of  death,  to  occupy  their 
new  habitations  in  the  capital.  The  throne  of  Mohammed 
was  guarded  by  the  numbers  and  fidelity  of  his  Moslem 
subjects.  But  his  rational  policy  aspired  to  collect  the 
remnant  of  the  Greeks  ;  and  they  returned,  in  crowds,  as 
soon  as  they  were  assured  of  their  lives,  their  liberties, 
and  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  In  the  election 
and  investiture  of  a  Patriarch,  the  ceremonial  of  the  By- 


140  GREAT  EVENTS. 

zantine  court  was  revived  and  imitated.  With  a  mixture 
of  satisfaction  and  horror,  they  beheld  the  Sultan  on  his 
throne  ;  who  delivered  into  the  hands  of  Gennadius  the 
crosier,  or  pastoral  staff,  the  symbol  of  his  ecclesiastical 
office  ;  who  conducted  the  Patriarch  to  the  gate  of  the 
seraglio,  presented  him  with  a  horse,  richly  caparisoned, 
and  directed  the  viziers  and  bashaws,  to  lead  him  to  the 
palace,  which  had  been  allotted  for  his  residence.  The 
churches  of  Constantinople  were  shared  between  the  two 
religions  ;  their  limits  were  marked  ;  and,  till  it  was  in- 
fringed by  Selim,  the  grandson  of  Mohammed,  the  Greeks 
enjoyed,  above  sixty  years,  the  benefit  of  this  equal  parti- 
tion. Encouraged  by  the  ministers  of  the  divan,  who 
wished  to  elude  the  fanaticism  of  the  Sultan,  the  Chris- 
tian advocates  presumed  to  allege,  that  this  division  had 
been  an  act,  not  of  generosity,  but  of  justice  ;  not  a  con- 
cession, but  a  compact ;  and  that,  if  one-half  of  the  city 
had  been  taken  by  storm,  the  other  moiety  had  surrendered 
on  the  faith  of  a  sacred  capitulation.  The  original  grant 
had  indeed  been  consumed  by  fire  ;  but  the  loss  was  sup- 
plied by  the  testimony  of  three  aged  Janizaries,  who  re- 
membered the  transaction  ;  and  their  venal  oaths  are  of 
more  weight  in  the  opinion  of  Cantemir,  than  the  positive 
and  unanimous  consent  of  the  history  of  the  times. 


MARTIN  LUTHER.  141 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  MARTIN  LUTHER  BE- 
FORE THE  DIET  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE, 
AT  WORMS,  IN  THE  YEAR  1521. 

THIS  account  is  taken  from  the  History  of  the  German 
Reformation,  by  Philip  Marheinecke,  D.  D.  Professor  of 
Theology  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  2  vols.  Berlin,  1816. 
The  work  relates  the  various  events,  as  far  as  possible,  in 
the  words  of  eye-witnesses,  correspondents,  or  other  con- 
temporaries. It  has,  therefore,  a  peculiar  intrinsic  as  well 
as  external  character  of  originality,  which  gives  to  the  pas- 
sage relating  to  Luther's  appearance  at  Worms,  a  very 
lively  interest.  Every  reader,  whether  Protestant  or 
Roman  Catholic,  will  admit,  that  Luther's  Declaration,  at 
Worms,  was  an  act  of  great  historical  importance.  It  is 
one  of  those  events,  to  which  we  must  necessarily  recur,  in 
contemplating  the  main  features  of  the  history  of  mankind; 
— one  of  those  acts,  for  which  preparation  has  been  made, 
by  a  long  succession  of  changes  and  movements,  and  the 
effects  of  which,  in  turn,  are  visible  for  centuries  ; — one 
of  those  acts,  in  fine,  by  which  a  new  order  of  things  comes 
to  be  irrevocably  established,  and  apportion  of  mankind 
pledged  to  its  support.  Such  acts  can  sometimes  be  tra- 
ced by  the  shrewd  historian,  only  ;  for  it  is  not  necessary, 
/  that  they  should  manifest  themselves  as  striking  events, 
speaking  directly  to  every  mind.  When,  however,  they 
unite  with  their  historical  importance  a  dramatic  interest, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  present  one  ;  when  mighty  interests 
are  personated  by  emperors,  and  cardinals,  and  a  humble 
monk,  or  a  nation  is  visibly  represented  by  an  august  Diet, 
and  we  not  only  feel  convinced  of  the  great  importance  of 
the  event,  but  see  it  acted  out  before  us,  in  distinct,  con- 
trasting forms;  then,  indeed,  they  acquire  the  highest  in- 
terest of  which  history  admits. 

The  Reformation  had  begun  to  extend  widely  over  Ger- 
many ;  the  writings  of  Luther  were  anxiously  read,  the 
more  so,  perhaps,  since  they  had  been  prohibited  by  the 
Pope.  Luther  had  been  excommunicated.  The  Emperor 
Charles  V.  had  proposed  to  the  Diet,  (that  is,  to  the  as- 
sembled estates  of  the  Germanic  empire, — the  electors, 
dukes,  princes,  counts,  and  barons,  as  well  as  the  prelates, 


142  GREAT   EVENTS. 

of  the  empire,  and  the  delegates  of  the  free  imperia  cities,) 
to  order  the  writings  of  Luther  to  be  sent  in,  and  burned. 
But  the  national  feeling  was  very  decidedly  against  such 
condemnation  of  writings,  on  the  part  of  Rome,  withou\ 
sufficient  inquiry  into  them  in  Germany,  and  without  first 
giving  to  Luther  a  hearing.  The  Emperor  saw  himself 
obliged  to  grant  to  the  German  Reformer  a  safeconduct, 
to  go,  unmolested,  to,  and  return  from,  Worms,  where  the 
Emperor's  first  Diet  was  held.  This,  perhaps,  he  was  the 
more  willing  to  do,  in  consideration  of  the  aid  he  had  de- 
rived in  his  election,  to  the  crown  of  Germany,  from  the 
Elector  of  Saxony,  whose  subject  Luther  was.  The  last 
named  prince  had  repeatedly  declared,  that  he  was  unable 
and  unwilling  to  decide  upon  Luther's  writings,  for  him- 
self ;  and  that  he  agreed  to  what  Luther  had  always  ask- 
ed, a  fair  hearing  ;  nor  was  he  willing  to  acknowledge  the 
absolute  power  of  Rome,  to  decide,  in  matters  of  such  im- 
portance, without  patient  inquiry  into  the  views  of  both 
sides.  Before  Luther  went  to  Worms,  the  Pope  had  al- 
ready, on  the  28th  of  March,  included  him  and  all  his  ad- 
herents, in  the  famous  bull,  '  In  Cana  Domini.'*  In  other 
words,  Luther  had  been  included  by  the  Pope  in  the  num- 
ber of  condemned  and  excommunicated  heretics,  a  list  of 
whom  is  every  year  publicly  read,  either  by  the  Pontiff 
himself,  or  a  deleg^e.  Luther  was  not  intimidated  by  this 
act  of  Papal  tyranny  ;  on  the  contrary,  he  published  a  sar- 
castic reply  to,  and  commentary  on,  the  bull,  in  the  style 
of  the  age. 

To  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  character  of  Luther,  we 
must  consider,  not  only  the  personal  danger,  to  which  he 
exposed  himself,  in  going  to  Worms,  reminded,  by  his 
friends,  as  he  seriously  was,  of  the  fate  of  Huss,  but  also, 
the  towering  courage  which  it  required,  for  an  humble  in- 
dividual, like  himself,  to  take  so  bold  a  stand,  before  the 
assembled  empire,  against  the  Pope  and  Church.  We 
must  recollect  the  vast  political  power  of  the  Church,  and, 
what  is  far  more,  the  immense  moral  power  of  a  vast  in- 
stitution, entwined,  as  that  was,  in  a  thousand  ways,  with 
all  the  branches  of  life,  with  the  affections  of  men,  with 
science,  with  the  very  logic  of  the  age,  with  the  arts, 
poetry,  and  literature,  with  all  and  every  thing  that  occu- 

*  So  called,  according  to  the  usual  mode  of  naming  bulls,  became 
beginning  with  the  words,  *'  In  Ccena  Domini." 


MARTIN  LUTHER.  143 

pies  the  mind  of  man,  as  well  in  the  higher  as  in  the  more 
ordinary  spheres  of  action  and  interest.  If  we  consider 
how  early  he  had  to  take  this  bold  stand,  with  what  un- 
wavering firmness  he  did  it,  and  how  worthily  he  acquitted 
himself,  it  will  probably  be  admitted,  that  no  act  in  his  life 
more  prominently  shows  the  heroic  element  in  his  soul, 
which,  upon  close  and  calm  examination,  must  be  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  foremost  traits  in  his  powerful  char- 
acter. The  account  is  taken  from  Vol.  I.,  beginning  with 
page  255. 

THE  carriage,  in  which  Luther  drove  to  Worms,  had 
been  given  him  by  the  town-council  of  Wittemberg,  for 
which  he  politely  thanked  them  in  a  letter.  At  Weimar, 
Duke  John  had  furnished  him  with  some  travelling  money. 
At  Erfurt,  his  reception  was  peculiarly  solemn.  Crotus, 
then  Rector  of  the  University,  accompanied  by  Cobanns 
Hessen,  Cuncius  Cordus,  John  Draco,  and  others,  forty 
in  number,  all  on  horseback,  with  many  people  on  foot, 
received  him  at  the  distance  of  two  (German)  miles  from 
Erfurt,  and  accompanied  the  carnage  which  contained 
Luther  and  his  companions,  into  the  town.  At  the  en- 
trance, and  in  all  the  streets  of  the  town,  through  which 
the  cortege  passed,  the  throng  was  still  greater.  He 
also  preached  here,  at  the  request  of  many  persons,  in  the 
convent  of  the  Augustines.  His  friend  Coban  has  sung 
his  entry  into  Erfurt,  and  sojourn  there,  in  four  beautiful 
Latin  poems.  At  Eisenach,  he  was  taken  sick,  and  was 
bled,  and  the  burgomaster  of  the  town  administered  to 
him  a  "noble  water,"  after  which,  he  fell  asleep.  The 
next  morning,  he  proceeded  on  his  journey.  Whenever 
he  entered  a  town,  multitudes  met  him,  desirous  to  see 
that  bold  man,  who  dared  to  take  a  stand  against  the 
Pope.  Some  gave  him 'sore  comfort,  by  saying,  that, 
considering  the  many  cardinals  and  bishops  at  Worms, 
there  could  be  little  doubt,  but  that  they  would  soon  burn 
him  to  powder,  as  they  had  burned  Huss,  at  Constance. 
But  Luther  replied,  "  Though  they  should  kindle  fire, 
between  Wittemberg  and  Worms,  whose  flames  should 
reach  to  the  heavens,  I  would  still  appear  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord,  and  step  into  the  very  jaws  of  Behemoth,  and 


144  GREAT   EVENTS. 

profess  Christ,  and  let  him  rule."  From  Frankfort,  he 
wrote  to  Spalatine,  having  heard,  in  the  mean  time,  of  the 
Imperial  edict  :*  u  We  are  coming,  dear  Spalatine,  al- 
though satan,  by  means  of  sickness,  has  thrown  many  ob- 
stacles in  my  path  ;  for  I  have  been  indisposed,  all  the 
way  from  Eisenach  to  this  place,  and  am  so  still,  to  a 
degree  very  unusual  with  me.  I  also  hear  that  the  Em- 
peror Charles  has  issued  a  mandate,  in  order  to  intimidate 
me.  Yet  Christ  lives  ;  therefore,  we  will  proceed  into 
Worms,  in  despite  of  all  the  hosts  of  hell,  and  the  powers 
of  the  air.  I  am  resolved  to  terrify  and  contemn  satan. 
Therefore,  prepare  a  lodging  for  us." 

An  attempt  was  also  made,  and  he  afterwards  stated, 
chat  it  was  through  the  intrigues  of  the  Elector  of  May- 
ence,  to  induce  him  not  to  take  the  direct  road  to  Worms, 
but  to  go  first  to  the  castle  of  Ebernburg,  and  there  con- 
verse with  the  cunning  Glapius.  Perhaps,  there  was  no 
evil  design  in  all  this  ;  especially,  if  we  consider  that  this 
castle  belonged  to  Francis  von  Sickingen,  and  that  this 
knight  himself  united  with  the  others,  in  requesting  that 
conversation,  through  the  intervention  of  Bucerus.  Lu- 
ther, however,  viewed  the  plan  with  suspicion,  and  feared 
that  he  might  be  detained  there,  until  the  only  remaining 
three  days  of  the  safeconduct  should  have  elapsed.  He 
therefore  answered,  resolutely,  "that  he  would  proceed 

*  As  may  easily  be  supposed,  many  intrigues  had  been  employed  by 
the  enemies  of  Luther,  either  to  prevent  his  appearing  at  Worms,  or, 
at  least,  to  prevent  the  grant  of  an  Imperial  safeconduct.  Thus,  the 
Emperor  proposed  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  whose  subject  Luther 
was,  that  he  should  receive  a  safeconduct  from  the  Elector  only, 
either  in  order  to  intimidate  Luther,  or  that  he  might  seize  upon  him, 
if  necessary.  But  the  Elector  declined  this  proposal  ;  and,  on  the 
sixth  of  March,  Luther  was  cited,  by  the  Emperor,  to  appear,  within 
twenty-one  days.  It  is  remarkable,  that,  although  the  Papal  bull  was 
known,  Luther  is  addressed,  in  the  citation, — "  The  honest,  our  dear 
and  pious  Dr.  Martin  Luther,  of  the  Augustines."  There  was  not  a 
word  about  recantation,  either  in  the  citation,  or  the  letter  of  safecon- 
duct. The  princes,  through  whose  territories  he  had  to  pass,  likewise 
gave  him  letters  of  safeconduct.  Caspar  Sturm  was  appointed  herald, 
to  accompany  Liith«-r  in  person  ;  and,  for  that  purpose,  was  called 
'  <;<TMKiny.'  Tin-  Elector  was  not  without  apprehension,  and  wrote, 
with  his  own  hand,  to  the  town-council  of  Wittemberg,  to  protect  him 
well,  and,  if  need  were,  to  give  him  a  guard,  as  well  as  to  fit  him  out 
decently  for  the  journey. 


MARTIN  LUTHER.  145 

whither  he  had  been  summoned  ;  and  that  he  might  be 
found  at  Worms."  At  Oppenheim,  Spalatine  sent  him 
word,  not  to  go  to  Worms,  and  Expose  himself  to  such 
danger.  Luther  answered  him,  "  If  there  were  as  many 
devils  in  Worms,  as  tiles  on  the  roofs,  still  I  would  go 
thither."  When,  a  few  days  before  his  death,  he  related 
this  occurrence,  he  added,  "  for  I  was  fearless  ;  I  fear- 
ed nothing.  God  can  make  one  thus  daring.  I  do  not 
know,  whether  I  should  now  be  so  cheerful. " 

He  arrived  at  Worms,  on  the  sixteenth  of  April.  His 
carriage  was  preceded  by  the  Imperial  herald,  in  his  offi- 
cial dress,  with  the  Imperial  eagle,  and  his  pursuivant. 
Tartus  Jonas,  with  his  secretary,  followed  the  carriage. 
Many  of  the  nobles  had  gone  to  meet  him  ;  and  when,  at 
ten  o'clock,  he  drove  into  the  town,  more  than  two  thou- 
sand people  accompanied  him  to  his  lodgings,  not  far  from 
the  White  Swan  Inn,  where  Lewis,  Elector  of  the  Pala- 
tinate, had  taken  up  his  quarters.  In  the  same  house 
with  him,  resided  the  Saxon  counsellors,  Frederic  of 
Thunau  and  Philip  of  Feilitsch,  both  knights,  as  likewise 
Ulrich  von  Pappenheim,  marshal  of  the  empire.  This 
is  related  by  Vitus  Warbeck,  canon  of  Altenburg,  who, 
on  account  of  his  knowledge  of  the  French  language,  was 
then  at  the  court  of  the  Elector  Frederic,  and  gave  these 
accounts  of  Luther's  entry  into  Worms  to  Duke  John, 
brother  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony. 

The  next  morning,  he  was  cited,  by  Pappenheim,  the 
hereditary  marshal  of  the  empire,  to  appear,  that  after- 
noon, in  the  council  of  the  empire.  This  nobleman  came 
for  him,  in  person,  at  four  o'clock,  and,  together  with  the 
heralds,  preceded  him  on  his  way  to  the  council.  The 
press  of  the  people,  in  the  streets,  was  so  great,  that  many 
climbed  upon  the  roofs  to  see  him,  and  it  became  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  avoid  the  multitude,  to  go  through  some 
houses  and  gardens.  When  Luther  was  about  entering 
the  council  chamber,  the  renowned  general,  George 
Frundsberg,  tapped  him  on  the  shoulder,  and  said,  "  Lit- 
tle monk,  little  monk,*  thou  art  now  going  to  take  a 

*  The  original  of  the  above  has  the  diminutive  of  the  word  monk, 
which,  I  am  well  aware,  is  used,  in  this  case,  by  way  of  cheering  en,- 
13  C,   E. 


146  GREAT  EVENTS. 

stand,  the  like  of  which  neither  I,  nor  many  other  generals 
have  ever  taken,  even  in  the  critical  hour  of  battle.  Art 
thou  of  right  opinion,  and  sure  in  thy  cause  ?  then  pro- 
ceed, in  God's  name,  and  be  sure,  God  will  never  abandon 
thee."  Ulrich  of  Hutten  (a  famous  knight)  had  likewise 
comforted  him,  by  two  excellent  letters,  which  are  ad- 
dressed, "  To  Martin  Luther,  the  invincible  theologian  and 
evangelist,  my  reverend  friend."  The  first  begins  thus  : 
"  '  The  Lord  hear  thee,  in  the  day  of  trouble  !  The  name 
of  the  God  of  Jacob  defend  thee  !  Send  thee  help  from 
the  sanctuary,  and  strengthen  thee  out  of  Zion  !  Grant 
thee  thy  heart's  desire  :  and  fulfil  all  thy  mind.  The 
Lord  perform  ah1  thy  petitions,  and  hear  thee,  from  His 
holy  heaven  ;  even  with  the  strength  of  His  right  hand.' 
For  what  else  can  I  wish  you,  most  worthy  Luther,  most 
honored  father,  in  these  times  ?  Be  comforted ;  be 
strong.  You  see  what  a  game  you  now  have  to  play, 
and  what  is  the  point  at  issue.  You  may  hope  every 
thing  of  me.  If  you  remain  constant,  I  '11  support  you 
to  my  latest  breath."  Some  even  ventured  to  express 
their  approbation  of  him,  in  the  meeting  of  high  person- 
ages, princes,  counts,  barons, bishops,  and  other  delegates. 
According  to  the  report  of  an  eyewitness,  there  were  up- 
wards of  five  thousand  people,  foreign  and  German,  in  the 
chamber,  the  ante-chambers,  and  outside,  at  the  windows. 
Luther  was  cheered,  on  all  sides,  and  exhorted  to  take 
courage,  and  not  to  fear  those  that  can  kill  the  body,  only. 
Lord  Pappenheim  (the  title  of  count  was  not  conferred, 
till  a  later  period)  reminded  him,  that  now,  standing  be- 
fore the  Emperor  and  estates,  he  should  say  nothing,  ex- 
cept when  called  upon.  John  von  Eck,*  '  official'  to 
the  Elector,  archbishop  of  Treves,  stepped  forward,  and, 
in  the  Emperor's  name,  asked,  whether  the  books,  lying 
there,  which  were  pointed  out  to  him,  were  his,  and 

dearment,  or,  at  least,  of  encouraging  familiarity  ;  while  little,  if  mis- 
taken for  a  term  to  express  size,  would  ill  apply  to  Luther,  who  was 
broadly  framed.  Yet  I  have  thought  that  "  little  monk"  comes  nearer 
to  the  original,  than  the  simple  word  monk  would  have  done. 

*  One  of  Luther's  most  vehement  antagonists.     Some  of  Luther's 
answers  are  no  leu  vehement. 


MARTIN  LUTHER.  147 

whether  he  would  renounce  the  opinions  contained  in 
them.  Upon  this,  D.  Schurf,  who  had  been  allowed  him 
as  an  advocate  and  protector,  called  out :  u  Let  the  books 
be  mentioned  by  name."  When  this  had  been  done,  Lu- 
ther answered  the  first  question  in  the  affirmative,  but  re- 
quested some  time  for  reflection,  before  he  should  answer 
the  second.  This,  the  Emperor  granted.  It  was  highly 
proper,  both  out  of  respect  for  his  own  character,  and 
that  of  the  assembly,  that  Luther  should  show  the  greatest 
circumspection  in  relation  to  these  high  and  sacred  matters, 
and  scrupulously  avoid,  from  this  momentous  hour,  any 
thing  which  might  appear  like  inconsiderate  want  of  grav- 
ity, or  even  like  violent  passion.  When  he  was  cited  to  ap- 
pear again,  the  next  day,  before  the  council  of  the  empire, 
every  one  was  most  anxious  to  hear  .the  decisive  answer. 
The  herald  was  sent  for  him,  again,  at  four  o'clock  ;  but 
he  was  obliged  to  wait  until  six,  so  great  was  the  crowd 
of  people.  The  lights  were  already  burning  in  the  cham- 
ber. When,  at  last,  he  was  ushered  in,  and  had  been 
ordered  to  speak,  he  addressed  the  assembly,  in  German, 
as  follows  :  "  Most  gracious  Emperor,  electors,  princes, 
and  lords  :  I  appear,  obedient,  at  the  time  which  was  last 
evening  appointed  ;  and  pray,  through  God's  mercy,  that 
your  majesty,  and  you,  my  lords,  would  most  graciously 
listen  to  this  just  and  true  cause,  for  such,  I  trust,  it  is  ; 
and  if,  from  ignorance,  I  should  perhaps  fail  to  give  to  ev- 
ery one  his  becoming  title,  or  otherwise  to  bear  myself 
according  to  the  customs  of  courts,  that  you  would  gra- 
ciously pardon  nje,  as  one  who  has  not  lived  in  courts, 
but  dwelt  in  monasteries,  and  who  can  testify  to  nothing 
else  respecting  myself,  but  that,  in  every  thing  which  I 
have  thus  far  taught  and  written,  with  a  simple  heart,  I 
have  had  in  view,  and  sought  for,  only  the  honor  of  God, 
and  the  profit  and  salvation  of  the  faithful ;  and  wished, 
that  these  should  be  honestly  instructed  in  the  truth." 
He  then  made  a  distinction  between  his  different  books. 
In  some,  he  said,  he  had  treated  of  faith  and  Christian 
works,  conformably  to  true  Christian  doctrine,  according 
to  the  testimony  even  of  his  adversaries  ;  these,  he  could 
not  take  back.  "  Nay,"  said  he,  "  even  the  Papal  bull. 


148  GREAT   EVENTS. 

hasty  and  violent  though  it  be,  considers  some  of  my 
books  as  not  of  dangerous  tendency,  although  it  condemns 
them,  by  a  frightful,  unnatural  sentence."  In  the  other 
works,  he  said,  he  had  attacked  the  authority  of  the  Pope, 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  Papists,  who,  by  their  false  doc- 
trine and  wicked  example,  have  ruined  Christendom,  in 
body  and  soul.  For  nobody,  he  continued,  can  deny  or 
conceal, — because  experience  proves  it,  and  all  pious 
hearts  deplore  it, — that,  by  the  law  of  the  Pope  and  doc- 
trines of  human  device,  the  consciences  of  the  faithful  are 
monstrously  and  wretchedly  entangled,  burdened,  and  tor- 
mented, and  the  property,  estates,  and  possessions,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  high-renowned  German  nation,  have 
been  exhausted  and  swallowed  up,  with  incredible  tyranny, 
and,  to  this  day,  continue  so  to  be,  without  opposition. 
What  he  had  advanced  in  these  books,  he  could  not 
retract,  any  more  than  in  the  case  of  the  former  ;  since, 
should  he  do  so,  he  only  should  confirm  his  enemies  in 
their  tyranny  and  malice.  "  O  !"  he  exclaimed,  "  what 
a  great  and  shameful  cover  of  all  sorts  of  knavery  and  ty- 
ranny, blessed  God,  should  I  then  make  of  myself !' 
The  third  class  of  his  books,  he  added,  was  directed 
against  some  private  persons,  who  had  dared  to  defend 
Roman  tyranny,  and  to  falsify  and  suppress  the  pious  doc- 
trine which  he  had  taught.  In  these,  he  had  sometimes 
shown  himself  more  Violent  than  was  befitting  his  office, 
yet  neither  could  he  take  back  these,  lest  he  should  en- 
courage people  to  defend,  in  future,  all  sorts  of  wicked 
things,  and  bring  about  new  horrors  and  violence.  "  Yet," 
continued  he,  u  since  I  am  a  man,  and  not  God,  I  cannot 
otherwise  help  or  defend  my  books,  than  as  my  Lord  and 
Saviour  did  his  doctrine,  who,  when  he  was  questioned 
respecting  his  doctrine,  before  the  high-priest  Annas,  and 
had  received  a  blow  on  the  cheek  from  the  servant  of  the 
high-priest,  said,  '  If  I  have  spoken  evil,  bear  witness 
of  the  evil.'  If,  then,  the  Lord,  who  knew  He  could  not 
err,  did  not  refuse  to  hear  testimony  against  His  doctrine, 
even  from  a  low  and  wicked  servant,  how  much  more 
should  I,  who  am  but  dust  and  ashes,  and  who  am  so  lia- 
ble to  err,  desire  the  same,  and  wait  to  see,  whether  any 


MARTIN  LUTHER.  149 

one  will  testify  against  my  doctrine.  Therefore,  I  pray, 
through  the  mercy  of  God,  your  imperial  majesty,  your 
electoral  and  princely  highnesses,  or  whosoever  else  will 
do  it,  be  he  high  or  low,  to  give  evidence,  and  prove  to 
me,  from  the  prophetic  and  apostolic  writings,  that  I  have 
erred,  so  that  I  may  be  persuaded  of  it,  and  I  shall  be 
willing  and  ready  to  renounce  every  error,  and  will  be 
the  first  to  throw  my  books  into  the  fire. 

"  Thus,  I  truly  think  that  I  have  sufficiently  considered 
and  weighed  the  disturbances,  danger,  and  contest,  which 
my  books  are  said  to  have  caused,  and  of  which  I  was  so 
distinctly  reminded,  yesterday.  To  me,  indeed,  it  is  the 
highest  pleasure  and  joy,  to  see  how  contest  and  discord 
arise,  for  the  sake  of  the  word  of  God  ;  for  this  is  the  na- 
ture, course,  and  fate,  of  his  word.  Therefore,  it  is  to  be 
considered,  how  inscrutable  God  is,  in  his  counsels  and 
judgements  ;  so  that  perhaps  that,  which  is  designed  as  a 
means  of  allaying  contest  and  discord,  may  become  an 
irresistible  flood  of  danger  to  body  and  soul,  if,  trusting 
to  our  own  power  and  wisdom,  we  begin  with  persecution 
and  perversion  of  the  word  of  God.  Moreover,  care  is  to 
be  taken,  that  the  government  of  this  most  excellent  and 
kindly  youth,*  the  Emperor  Charles,  (in  whom,  next  to 
God,  we  have  much  hope,)  do  not  begin,  much  less  con' 
tinue  and  end,  in  evil  and  unhappiness.  I  might  easily 
explain  and  illustrate  this  remark  still  further,  by  exam- 
ples from  Holy  Writ,  as  in  the  case  of  Pharaoh,  of  the 
king  of  Babylon,  and  the  kings  of  Israel,  who  brought 
the  greatest  misery  upon  themselves,  when  they  meant 
to  pacify  and  maintain  their  kingdoms,  by  their  most  pru- 
dent plans  and  counsels.  For  He  it  is,  '  who  taketh  the 
wise  in  their  own  craftiness,'  who  c  removeth  the  moun- 
tains, and  they  know  not.'  (Job  v.  13,  ix.  5.)  There- 
fore, men  should  fear  God. 

u  But,  for  brevity's  sake,  I  will  omit  further  examples, 
now.  I  have  not  said  all  this,  because  I  supposed  that 
such  distinguished  personages  need  to  be  informed  by  me, 
and  reminded  of  their  duty,  but  because  I  would  not,  anc* 

*  Charles  was  then  twenty-one  years  old. 

13* 


150  GREAT   EVENTS. 

ought  not,  refuse  my  most  dutiful  service  to  the  German 
nation,  to  my  dear  fatherland.  And  thus  would  I  most 
humbly  recommend  myself  to  your  imperial  majesty  and 
your  electoral  and  princely  highnesses,  and  devoutly  pray, 
that  you  would  not  allow  yourselves  to  be  moved  by  my 
adversaries,  without  cause." 

This  and  more  was  spoken  by  Luther  in  German. 
But  it  was  known  that  the  Emperor  understood  Spanish, 
better  than  German,  and  did  not  like  the  German  lan- 
guage. "  Therefore,"  says  Luther,  (in  his  account  of 
this  day,)  "while  I  was  thus  speaking,  they  asked  me, 
to  repeat  it  over,  again,  in  Latin.  I  felt  very  warm,  and 
was  in  a  profuse  perspiration,  partly  on  account  of  the 
crowd,  partly  because  I  stood  before  princes  ;  and  Mr. 
Friederic  of  Thunau  said,  '  If  you  cannot  do  it,  this  will 
answer,  Doctor.'  But  I  repeated  all  I  had  said,  in  Lat- 
in. This  pleased  the  Duke  Frederic,  the  Elector,  ex- 
ceedingly well." 

All  this  Luther  did,  with  great  humility,  and  a  submis 
sive  demeanor  ;  nor  did  he  speak  loud,  nor  vehemently, 
but  in  a  most  decorous  and  exceedingly  modest  manner,  yet 
with  great  cheerfulness  and  firmness.  When,  however, 
the  '  official'  of  Treves  interrupted  him,  in  a  menacing 
tone,  and  demanded  a  round  and  direct  answer,  whether 
he  would  recant  or  not,  Luther  replied  :  u  Since  his  im- 
perial majesty  and  their  electoral  and  princely  highnesses 
demand  a  plain,  simple,  and  direct,  answer,  I  will  give 
one,  which  shall  have  neither  horns  nor  teeth,  namely, 
this  : — Unless  I  can  be  persuaded  and  convinced,  by 
proofs  from  Holy  Writ,  or  by  fair  reason  and  argument, 
(for  I  neither  allow  the  Pope,  nor  the  councils,  to  be 
sole  authority,  since  it  is  known  and  manifest,  that  they 
have  often  erred,  and  have  contradicted  one  another,) 
unless,  therefore,  I  can  be  confuted  in  respect  to  the 
passages,  which  I  have  quoted,  since  my  conscience  is 
hemmed  in  by  the  word  of  God,  I  cannot  and  will  not 
recant,  because  it  is  neither  safe  nor  prudent  to  do  aught 
against  conscience.  Here  I  stand  ;  I  cannot  do  other- 
wise ;  so  help  me  God  !  Amen." 

"  When  I  had  thus  finished,"  says  Luther,  in  his  ac- 


MARTIN  LUTHER.  151 

count,  c '  they  allowed  me  to  depart,  and  two  attendants 
were  appointed,  to  conduct  and  accompany  me.  Upon 
this,  a  tumult  arose,  and  the  nobles  called  out,  <  Do 
they  lead  you  away  prisoner  ?'  I  answered,  '  they  only, 
accompany  me.'  In  this  manner,  I  returned  to  my  inn, 
and  have  never  since  appeared  in  the  council  of  the  em- 
pire." 

The  cheerful  profession  of  the  truth,  which  Luther 
had  here  made,  in  the  face  of  the  whole  German  empire, 
won  him  the  hearts  of  many  nobles  and  princes  ;  even 
such,  as  did  not  remain  faithful  and  firm  in  the  profession 
of  the  gospel,  in  after  times  ;  and  also  of  others,  who, 
from  considerations  of  caution,  did  not  openly  express 
their  approbation.  The  old  Duke  Eric  of  Brunswick, 
however,  sent  him  a  silver  can  of  Einbeck  beer,*  and  bade 
him  refresh  himself  with  it.  When  Luther  asked,  what 
prince  had  so  graciously  thought  of  him,  he  was  told, 
that  it  was  the  Duke,  who  had  himself  first  drunk  from 
the  can.  Luther,  no  longer  fearing  any  evil  design,  drank, 
likewise,  and  said,  "  As  Duke  Eric  has  thought  of  me, 
this  day,  so  may  our  Lord  Christ  think  of  him,  in  his 
last  struggle." 

Duke  Eric  remembered  these  words,  in  his  last  hour  ; 
and  asked  a  page,  Francis  von  Kramm,  standing  near  his 
bed,  to  comfort  him  with  evangelic  comfort.  "It is  cer- 
tainly true,"  says  the  good  Spalatine,  "  that  God  honored 
the  Doctor  Martin,  at  the  Diet,  in  such  a  manner,  that 
he  had  many  more  spectators  and  beholders,  than  all  the 
princes  and  lords.  His  lodgings  were,  every  day,  throng- 
ed with  people,  as  long  as  he  remained  at  Worms.  Thus 
have  I,  Spalatine,  seen  with  him,  among  other  counts  and 
lords,  Landgrave  Philip,  of  Hessia,  Duke  William,  of 
Brunswick,  and  Count  William,  of  Henneberg.  Thus, 
also,  my  most  gracious  master,  Duke  Frederic,  Elector 
of  Saxony,  felt  such  an  admiration  of  the  Christian,  cour- 
ageous answer  of  the  Doctor  Martin,  before  the  imperial 
majesty,  and  the  estates  of  the  empire,  in  Latin  and  Ger- 
man, that  his  electoral  grace,  before  he  sat  down  to  sup- 

*  Einbeckv  )r  Eimbeck,  a  town  not  far  from  Gottingen,  noted  for  its 
good  beer. 


152  GREAT  EVENTS. 

per,  sent  for  me  to  the  inn  of  Doctor  Martin  ;  and,  when 
his  electoral  grace  was  about  to  wash  himself,  and  per- 
ceived me,  he  beckoned  me  to  follow  him  into  the  cham- 
.ber.  And. when  I  entered,  his  electoral  grace  said,  with 
great  admiration,  '  Well  has  the  father,  Doctor  Martin, 
spoken  before  the  lord  our  Emperor,  and  all  the  princes 
and  estates  of  the  empire  ;  but  he  has  been  too  brave  for 
me.'  Now,"  adds  Spalatine,  "  my  most  gracious  master, 
just  mentioned,  *was,  as  yet,  somewhat  fainthearted.  He 
certainly  loved  Doctor  Martin,  and  would  have  felt  great 
sorrow,  had  any  evil  befallen  him  ;  he  would  not  willingly 
have  done  any  thing  against  the  word  of  God,  but  neither 
would  he  have  been  willing  to  draw  upon  himself  the  ill- 
will  of  the  Emperor."  How  much  the  Elector  took  the 
affair  of  Luther  to  heart  appears,  especially,  from  some 
letters,  which  this  prince  wrote  with  his  own  hand,  during 
the  Diet,  to  his  brother  John.  In  one,  dated,  January 
the  sixteenth,  (and,  consequently,  before  Luther  had  been 
cited,)  he  says,  among  oiher  things,  that  "he  perceives, 
that  there  are  daily  consultations  against  Luther,  how  he 
may  be  excommunicated  by  the  Pope,  and  outlawed  by 
the  Emperor,  and  that  they  try  to  get  at  him,  in  all  man- 
ner of  ways.  This,"  he  continues,  "  is  done,  by  those 
who  shine  in  red  hats  ;*  and  by  the  Romans,  with  their 
adherents."  He  adds,  moreover,  that,  on  the  same  day, 
Landgrave  Philip  had  arrived  with  a  troop  of  six  hundred 
horse,  in  which  were  many  brave  men  ;  that  the  same  had, 
immediately  after,  visited  him,  and  then  his  father-in-law, 
Duke  George.  Duke  George,  he  says,  talks  with  him, 
(the  Elector,)  "  in  a  very  friendly  manner.  How  the 
heart  is,"  he  adds,  "  God  alone  knows."  Under  date  of 
January  the  thirtieth,  he  writes,  that  Martin's  affair  is  in 
the  same  state,  as  he  described  it,  lately,  but  that  he  hopes 
that,  through  God's  mercy,  truth  will  come  to  light.  In 
another  letter,  of  March  the  twenty-fifth,  he  complains  of 
the  press  of  business,  and  that  he  is  obliged  to  sit,  daily, 
from  eight  to  nine  hours  in  the  council  chamber.  "  Doc- 
tor Martin,"  he  continues,  "  has  been  cited,  but  I  do  not 

*  The  cardinals. 


MARTIN  LUTHER.  153 

know  whether  he  will  come  ;  every  thing  goes  slowly ;  I 
cannot  promise  much  good."  On  April  the  sixteenth,  he 
wrote  :  "  I  do  not  know  whether  Luther  will  come  ;  de- 
crees against  him  have  been  publicly  affixed  to  the  walls, 
&c.  [These  were  the  decrees  against  his  books.]  The 
cardinals  and  bishops  are  strongly  opposed  to  him  ;  may 
God  rule  every  thing  for  the  best.  Would  to  God,  I  could 
induce  Martin,  to  some  fairness  ;  it  should  not  be  wanting 
in  me."  On  April  twenty -third,  after  Luther  had  been 
heard,  he  wrote  :  "  If  it  rested  with  me,  I  should  be  wil- 
ling to  assist  Martin,  in  all  things  lawful.  Your  grace 
may  believe  me,  that  I  am  perplexed  in  these  matters ; 
you  have  strange  tidings  to  hear  from  me,  respecting  them. 
It  seems,  they  contemplate  no  less,  than  to  thrust  him 
out  into  misery.  Whoever  shows,  in  any  degree,  that  he 
loves  him,  is  at  once  set  down  as  a  heretic.  May  God 
direct  every  thing  for  the  best,  who  verily  will  not  aban- 
don the  just  cause.  How  Luther  has  been  dismissed,  I 
will  write  in  my  next."  On  May  the  fifth  :  "  Martin's 
affair  stands  thus  ;  he  must  go  into  misery  ;  there  is  no 
remedy  ;  but  the  issue  remains  with  God.  When,  with 
God's  assistance,  I  join  your  grace,  I  shall  have  to  tell 
you  wonders.  Your  grace  may  believe  me,  that  not  only 
Annas  and  Caiaphas,  but  also  Pilate  and  Herod,  oppose 
Luther."  Other  measures  were  soon  after  taken,  to  in- 
duce Luther  to  some  recantation.  Not  to  mention  the 
Papal  theologian,  Cochlaeus,*  (who  was  the  bitter  enemy 
of  Luther,  at  a  later  period,  although  he  boasted,  after- 
wards, of  having  shed  tears  during  his  attempts  at  inducing; 
him  to  recant,  at  Worms,)  there  were  not  a  few,  who 
thought  that  the  easiest  way  of  proceeding  with  Luther 
would  be,  to  refuse  him  a  safeconduct  home.  Among  these, 
was,  unfortunately,  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  But  the 
Emperor  Charles,  as  well  as  the  Elector  of  the  Palatinate, 
and  especially,  (which  is  most  to  be  wondered  at,)  Duke 
George,  of  Saxony,  manfully  opposed  this  proposition. 
The  Elector  Lewis,  of  the  Palatinate,  with  whom,  as 
Mathesius  says,  was  buried  German  peace  and  quiet,  had 

*  His  original  German  name  was  Lofler. 


154  GREAT  EVENTS. 

such  a  quarrel  with  the  Elector  Joachim  of  Brandenburg, 
upon  this  subject,  that,  as  Luther  relates,  they  grasped 
their  knives.  But  Duke  George  frankly  declared,  that 
the  German  princes  would  never  suffer  so  shameful  a 
violation  of  the  safeconduct,  especially  at  the  first  Diet 
of  the  Emperor  ;  that  this  would  not  agree  with  ancient 
German  honesty  ;  that  what  had  been  promised  must  be 
performed.  Which,  indeed,  was  spoken  in  a  noble  and 
princely  spirit,  and  must,  in  fairness,  be  praised  in  one, 
who  was,  in  other  respects,  a  vehement  enemy. 

Hopes  were  still  entertained,  of  bringing  Luther,  by 
private  conversations,  to  a  change  of  sentiments.  In  a 
conference  of  this  sort,  at  which  Reichard,  archbishop 
of  Treves,  the  Elector  Joachim,  of  Brandenburg,  Duke 
George,  and  some  counts  and  deputies  of  the  cities,  were 
present,  the  chancellor  of  Baden,  Doctor  Vehus,  con- 
ducted the  conversation,  and,  after  that,  the  archbishop 
of  Treves  took  Luther,  privately,  into  a  chamber,  where 
the  '  official,'  Eck,  and  Cochlaeus  were  likewise  pres- 
ent. On  the  next  day,  April  the  twenty-fifth,  Vehus, 
with  Doctor  Peutinger,  continued  the  labor,  both  before 
and  after  noon.  But  the  Elector  Frederic  was  not  wil- 
ling that  Luther  should  hold  discussions  with  them,  alone  ; 
and  sent  some  of  his  counsellors  to  join  them.  At 
length,  the  archbishop  of  Treves  took  him  aside,  once 
more,  upon  which,  Luther  declared,  he  knew  no  better 
counsel  than  that  of  Gamaliel :  u  If  this  counsel  or  this 
work,  be  of  man,  it  will  perish  ;  but  if  it  be  of  God, 
you  will  not  be  able  to  smother  it."  He  added,  "If 
my  cause  is  not  of  God,  it  will  not  last  beyond  two  or 
three  years  ;  if  it  be  of  God,  it  cannot  be  stifled." 
Upon  this,  the  Elector  (the  archbishop  of  Treves  was 
one  of  the  electors)  asked,  whether  nothing  could  pos- 
sibly be  done,  by  the  recantation  of  certain  articles. 
Luther  answered,  "  My  gracious  lord,  so  that  they  be  not 
the  very  ones,  which  they  have  condemned  at  Constance." 
Upon  this,  the  Elector  said  :  "  Those,  I  fear  me,  are 
the  very  ones."  "  Those,"  replied  Luther,  "  I  cannot 
yield,  happen  to  me  what  may." 

At  length,  leave  to  depart  from  Worms,  was  granted 


MARTIN  LUTHER.  156 

him,  according  to  his  desire.  The  electoral  '  official' 
of  Treves  and  the  private  secretary  of  the  Emperor  in- 
formed him,  that  since,  in  spite  of  so  many  exhortations, 
he  would  not  yield  to  the  authority  of  the  Church,  his 
imperial  majesty  must  consider  himself  as  the  advocate 
of  the  Catholic  faith,  and  consequently  command  him 
to  return  to  his  home,  under  free  safeconduct,  within 
twenty-one  days,  and  not  to  excite  the  people,  on  the 
way,  by  preaching  or  writing.  Luther  answered,  upon 
this,  u  As  it  has  pleased  the  Lord,  even  so  it  has  hap- 
pened ;  blessed  be  the  name  of  the  Lord."  He  added, 
that,  above  all,  he  most  devoutly  and  obediently  thanked 
the  emperor's  majesty,  the  electors  and  estates  of  the 
empire,  that  they  had  heard  him,  so  graciously,  and  that 
the  promised  safeconduct  had  been  kept,  and  should  still 
be  kept,  inviolate.  For  that  he  had  desired,  in  all  his 
doings,  nothing  but  this,  that  a  reformation,  on  the  ground 
of  Holy  Writ,  for  which  he  had  so  earnestly  petitioned, 
should  be  undertaken  and  executed.  As  for  the  rest, 
that  he  would  cheerfully  do  and  suffer  every  thing  for  the 
emperor's  majesty,  and  the  empire  ;  would  submit  life  or 
death,  honor  or  shame,  and  keep  nothing  for  himself,  ex- 
cept the  word  of  God,  freely  to  profess  and  testify  to 
the  same.  And,  finally,  that  he  would  commend  himself 
most  devoutly  to  his  imperial  majesty,  and  the  whole 
empire. 

Thus  Luther  left  Worms,  on  the  twenty-sixth  day 
of  April  ;  having  first  taken  leave  of  all  his  friends.  He 
arrived  at  Friedburg  on  the  twenty-eighth.  Being  now  in 
Hessian  territory,  he  sent  back  the  imperial  herald,  with 
two  letters,  one  to  the  Emperor,  the  other  to  the  estates 
of  the  empire.  In  these,  after  a  relation  of  all  the  trans- 
actions at  Worms,  he  complains,  that  his  doctrine  had 
not  been  inquired  into,  on  the  grounds  of  Scripture,  and 
once  more  expresses  his  thanks,  for  -the  safeconduct. 
He  concludes  the  letter  to  the  Emperor,  with  these 
words  :  "  Therefore,  I  most  earnestly  pray,  not  for  my- 
self, alone,  for  I  am  an  unworthy  and  despised  man,  but 
for  and  in  the  name  of  all  Christendom.  This  it  is 
which  has  moved  me,  to  send  this  epistle.  For  I  wish- 


156  GREAT  EVENTS. 

ed,  from  all  ray  heart,  that  your  imperial  majesty  should 
be  a  blessing  to  the  whole  empire,  and  to  the  noble  and 
most  worthy  German  nation,  and  that  all  should  be  kept 
in  God's  grace,  with  all  success  and  happiness.  I  have 
not,  thus  far,  sought  any  thing  else  but  the  honor  of  God, 
and  the  general  welfare  and  salvation  of  every  man  ;  and 
have  not  considered  my  own  advantage  ;  nor  do  I,  now  ; 
whether  God  permit  my  adversaries  to  condemn  me  or 
not.  If  Christ,  my  Lord,  prayed  for  his  enemies  on  the 
cross,  much  more  shall  I  be  careful  of,  and  pray  and  im- 
plore God  for,  your  imperial  majesty,  the  whole  empire, 
and  my  beloved  forefathers,*  and  the  whole  of  Germany, 
my  dear  fatherland,  for  the  which  I  hope  every  thing 
good,  according  to  my  cheerful  and  confident  trust  in 
Christ,  my  Lord." 

At  his  departure  from  Worms,  he  had  been  prohibi- 
ted, indeed,  from  all  preaching  ;  but  he  had  no  ways  as- 
sented to  this  condition.  On  the  contrary,  he  had  made 
this  reservation,  "  that  God's  word  remains  unfettered, 
and  that  he  was  at  liberty  freely  to  profess  it."  He 
preached,  therefore,  at  Hirschfeld.  At  this  place,  the 
abbot,  a  Benedictine,  who  was  one  of  the  princes  of  the 
empire,  received  him  with  extraordinary  honors,  and  in- 
vited him  to  preach,  although  Luther  reminded  him,  that 
he  might  chance  to  lose  his  abbey  for  it.  He  likewise 
preached  at  Eisenach.  While  he  was  proceeding  on  his 
journey,  having  left  the  main  road,  to  visit  some  friends 
near  Salzungen,  he  was  suddenly  seized  upon,  not  far 
from  Altenstein  and  Waltershausen,  by  an  arrangement 
of  the  Elector,  in  concert  with  John  von  Berlepsch, 
bailiff  at  Wartburg,  and  Burkhard  Hund,  lord  of  Alten- 
stein, by  some  disguised  horsemen,  who,  however,  were 
soon  recognised  as  kind  friends.  They  lifted  him  out 
of  the  carriage,  placed  him  on  horseback,  led  him  about 
in  the  forest  for  some  hours.  At  length,  at  eleven  o'clock 
at  night,  they  brought  him  to  the  castle  of  Wartburg, 

•  To  these  *'  beloved  forefathers"  the  previous  "being  careful 
of,"  it  would  seem  has  only  reference,  which,  indeed,  appears  clearer 
from  the  original. 


MARTIN  LUTHER.  157 

near  Eisenach,  the  ancient  residence  of  the  landgraves 
of  Thuringia.* 

*  Here  Luther  passed  under  the  name  of  Knight  George,  (or,  as  we 
would  express  it  in  modern  idiom,  Chevalier  George,)  and  here,  in 
silvan  solitude,  in  one  of  the  finest  spots  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  he 
translated  the  New  Testament  into  German.  In  this  retirement, 
where  his  prince  kept  him  for  his  safety,  he  remained  ten  months, 
when,  informed  of  the  destruction  of  pictures,  and  other  fanatical  dis- 
turbances, excited  by  Carlstadt,  he  could  remain  no  longer.  Feeling 
called  upon  to  hasten  to  the  fanatics,  in  order  to  preach  reason,  peace, 
and  order,  in  the  name  of  sound  religion,  he  left  the  castle,  notwith- 
standing the  new  proclamation  of  outlawry,  which  the  Emperor  had 
just  issued  against  him  from  Nuremberg.  His  letter  to  the  Elector 
Frederic,  upon  this  occasion,  like  his  whole  appearance  at  Worms, 
proves  the  heroic  firmness  of  his  soul. 


14  Q.   E. 


158  GREAT  EVENTS. 


THE  SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES, 
IN  THE  YEAR  1522. 

BY  THE  ABBE  VERTOT. 

THE  universal  desire  to  visit  those  spots,  which,  for 
any  reason,  are  endeared  to  us,  or  which  have  been  hal- 
lowed by  important  or  great  actions, — a  desire  common 
to  mankind,  in  all  periods, — became  gradually  a  distinc- 
tive feature  of  the  middle  ages,  as  shown  in  the  pilgrim- 
ages which  were  made  to  all  places  considered  peculiarly 
sacred,  but  especially  to  the  country  where  the  Saviour 
had  lived,  taught,  and  suffered.  The  religious  fervor, 
and  the  romantic  and  venturous  spirit,  so  universally 
blended  and  diffused  in  that  age,  naturally  presented  in 
the  most  attractive  light,  a  perilous  journey  to  the  tomb  of 
Christ  and  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  This  was  especially 
the  case,  when,  likewise  in  the  spirit  of  the  times,  such  a 
pilgrimage  came  to  be  considered,  and  finally  to  be  pro- 
claimed, by  the  Church,  as  a  good  work,  of  itself,  pos- 
sessing, as  such,  some  degree  of  merit  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Deity,  which  migjit  counterbalance  previous  failures  and 
wrongs.  Yet,  the  chief  agent  which  impelled  thousands 
and  thousands  to  visit  Jerusalem  and  Mount  Sinai,  we 
must  seek  in  the  devotional  glow  and  religious  fervor  of 
the  times,  which  had  seized  upon  the  otherwise  universal 
desire  of  mankind,  already  mentioned,  to  visit  hallowed 
spots.  It  is  originally  the  same  impulse,  which  makes  the 
scholar  desire  to  see  Athens  or  Rome,  and  the  citizen  to 
walk  over  the  battle  field  where  his  ancestors  bled  for  the 
liberty  which  he  enjoys.  It  is  this,  which  gives  to  the 
little  town  of  Palos  a  very  different  interest,  in  the  eyes 
of  every  one  who  honors  the  heroic  perseverance  of  Co- 
lumbus, from  that,  with  which  he  views  other  seaports 
-infinitely  more  important,  in  the  commerce  of  nations. 
For  the  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land  were  performed  by 
thousands,  long  ere  the  Church  declared  them  to  possess 
the  effective  agency  of  good  works.  The  pilgrims,  how- 
\vere  exposed  to  many  privations  ;  and,  not  unfre- 
quently,  to  the  serious  wants  and  the  numerous  sufferings, 
brought  on  by  diseases  peculiar  to  the  East,  and  to  which 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  159 

most  of  the  pilgrims  were  especially  exposed,  destitute,  as 
they  were,  of  most  of  the  necessaries  and  comforts  which 
might  have  protected  their  health.  Some  pious  men, 
therefore,  resolved  to  dedicate  their  lives  to  the  attend- 
ance upon,  and  relief  of,  the  sick  pilgrims  at  Jerusalem  ; 
and,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  some  mer- 
chants from  Amalfi,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  furnished 
the  necessary  means  to  establish  a  regular  hospital  for 
pious  pilgrims,  with  a  church,  which  was  dedicated  to  St. 
John  the  Baptist.  When,  therefore,  those  voluntary  min- 
isters of  the  sick  assumed  some  regular  order  among  them- 
selves, and  especially,  when  they  were  recognised  and 
sanctioned  as  a  regular  society,  by  the  Church,  they  were 
called  Brothers  of  St.  John,  or  Hospitallers.  The  Cru- 
sades, those  repeated  attempts  to  wrest,  from  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Mohammedans,  the  countries  hallowed,  in  the 
mind  of  every  Christian,  by  the  history  of  his  religion, 
not  unfrequently  left  unemployed,  for  a  time,  some  of  the 
Knights,  who  had  proceeded  to  Palestine,  to  fight  against 
the  Saracens.  Some  of  them,  seeing  how  charitably  the 
Hospitallers  were  employed,  in  furnishing  relief  to  the  suf- 
fering pilgrim,  resolved  to  join  them,  in  this  work  of  char- 
ity, while  their  swords  had  a  respite.  Not  long  after,  a 
Religious  Order  was  organized,  and  sanctioned  by  the 
Pope,  the  chief  part  of  the  members  of  which  were  to  be 
soldiers  in  arms  against  the  Infidels,  but  uniting  with  their 
warlike  character,  at  the  same  time,  the  character  of 
members  of  a  religious  order,  and  that  of  nurses  of  the 
sick.  They  were  to  be  Knights,  and  were  obliged  to 
prove  their  descent  from  noble  families.  Hence,  they 
were  called,  Knights  Hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  Jerusa- 
lem. The  Pope  was  the  supreme  spiritual  head  of  this, 
as  of  every  other  religious  order.  A  Knight  Hospitaller 
was  required  to  take  the  three  common  monastic  vows, — 
that  of  obedience  to  his  superiors  and  the  Church  ;  of 
chastity,  including  that  of  celibacy  ;  and  of  poverty,  which 
was,  however,  in  various  modes  dispensed  with.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  vows,  he  took  those  of  unremitted  hostility 
and  war  against  the  Infidels,  and  of  devotedness  to  the 
sick.  The  Order  had  grown  so  decidedly  out  of  the  spirit 
of  the  times,  and  answered  so  directly  the  devotional  and 
adventurous  desire  of  action,  in  the  middle  ages  ;  it  united, 
in  so  remarkable  a  degree,  religious  fervor  and  chivalric 
spirit  ;  the  stern,  world-renouncing  vows  of  the  monk  with 


160  GREAT   EVENTS. 

the  feudal  notions  of  the  importance  of  noble  descent  ;  the 
humble  and  menial  works  of  charity  with  the  brilliant  and 
heroic  deeds  of  arms  ; — that  it  rapidly  increased,  and  ac- 
quired great  property,  in  all  the  countries  of  Western  Eu- 
rope. In  this  respect,  likewise,  that  the  Order  extended 
over  many  different  countries,  it  truly  represented  the 
spirit  of  those  times,  in  which  the  tribes  belonging  to  one 
country  had  not  yet  consolidated  into  great  nations,  and 
when  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  embraced  nearly  all 
the  numerous  dialects  and  tribes  of  the  Christians  of  West- 
ern Europe.  Knights  of  all  nations  belonged  to  this  Or- 
der, which,  for  the  better  administration  of  its  extensive 
possessions,  and  the  organization  of  its  members,  was  di- 
vided into  Languages,  of  which,  in  the  most  flourishing 
times  of  the  Order,  there  were  eight  ;  namely,  those  of 
Provence,  Auvergne,  France,  Italy,  Aragon,  Germany, 
Castile,  and  England.  At  the  head  of  the  Order  was  the 
Grand-master,  an  elective  officer,  deemed  a  sovereign 
prince  in  all  secular  matters.  According  to  the  later  cer- 
emonial of  the  Courts,  he  took  precedence  before  the  car- 
dinals. 

There  were,  besides  the  Knights  Hospitallers,  other 
members  of  the  Order  ;  namely,  chaplains,  or  priests,  and 
servitors.  For  a  long  time,  the  Order  maintained  itself  in 
Palestine,  by  union  and  great  courage,  against  the  Turks 
and  Saracens  ;  but  they  were  finally  obliged,  with  all  the 
other  Christians  of  the  West,  to  leave  the  Holy  Land.  Af- 
ter having  established  themselves,  for  some  time,  in  the  isl- 
and of  Cyprus,  where  the  Order  first  acquired  a  naval  char- 
acter, they  conquered  the  island  of  Rhodes,  near  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor.  This,  they  greatly  improved,  botli  as  a 
commercial  place  and  as  a  military  bulwark  of  Christen- 
dom, during  the  two  centuries,  through  which  these  "  noble 
and  warlike  monks,  renowned  by  land  and  sea,"*  kept 
possession  of  it,  by  means  of  their  continued  heroic  exer- 
tion. They  were  now  called  Knights  of  Rhodes.  Mo- 
hammed the  Second,  the  conqueror  of  Constantinople,  and 
of  so  many  kingdoms  and  principalities,  the  dread  of  Chris- 
tian Europe,  the  almost  irresistible  Captain,  who  had  al- 
ready taken  Otranto,  in  Italy,  and  probably  would  have 
pursued  his  conquests  in  that  country, — and  who  will  ven- 
ture to  say,  how  far  he  might  have  pushed  his  fearful  victo- 
ries, but  for  his  death  ! — that  Sultan,  who  filled  all  Europe 

*  Gibbon. 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  161 

with  sich  an  awe,  that  every  church  inserted  a  prayer 
against  the  Turks,  in  its  litany,  and  celebrated  joyful  festiv- 
ities, when  the  Christians  had  been  able  to  make  a  stand 
against  him,  as  if  they  had  gained  a  victory  ; — this  mighty 
conqueror  could  not,  with  all  his  power,  the  universal 
dread  he  inspired,  and  all  the  treachery  he  could  make 
use  of,  subdue  the  Knights  of  Rhodes.  They  repelled  his 
attack,  by  a  most  gallant  and  persevering  defence,  under 
their  Grand-master,  Peter  d'Aubusson  ;  and  Mohammed 
is  said  to  have  given  directions,  that  his  tomb  should  be 
inscribed,  not  with  an  enumeration  of  his  victories,  but 
with  these  words  : 

"  I  MEANT  TO  CONQUER  RHODES, 
AND  TO  SUBDUE  FAIR  ITALY." 

Ever  since  this  repulse,  the  Turks  considered  it  a  point 
of  honor  to  subdue  that  proud  island,  as  they  were  like- 
wise interested  in  its  conquest,  on  account  of  the  serious 
and  continual  injury  which  the  Knights  of  Rhodes  inflicted 
upon  their  maritime  trade,  by  intercepting  the  rich  convoys 
from  Egypt  to  Constantinople,  or  to  the  western  Mohamme- 
dan states  in  Africa.  A  great  armament,  therefore,  was 
fitted  out,  under  Soliman  the  Second,  in  the  year  1522  ; 
and  Rhodes,  after  a  most  protracted  defence,  equalled  in 
fortitude  and  undaunted  heroism  by  few  other  actions  in 
history,  and  attracting,  at  the  time,  the  universal  admira- 
tion and  sympathy  of  Europe,  was  at  last  compelled  to  sur- 
render. Yet,  so  noble  had  been  the  defence,  and  so  inju- 
rious to  the  overwhelming  force  of  the  Turks,  that  the 
most  honorable  conditions  were  granted  to  the  handful  of 
exhausted  and  crippled  Knights,  who  had  the  misfortune, 
as  they  considered  it,  to  survive  their  brethren  and  the 
fall  of  their  island.  From  the  conquest  of  Asia  Minor  and 
the  Greek  empire,  by  the  Turks,  to  the  famous  naval  bat- 
tle at  Lepanto,  in  1571,  where  John  of  Austria,  the  son  of 
Charles  the  Fifth,  broke  the  Turkish  maritime  power,  so 
that  it  never  fully  recovered,  there  existed  the  greatest  dan- 
ger, lest  Western  Europe,  disunited  as  it  was,  should  be 
forced  from  its  onward  course  of  civilization,  by  the  Turk- 
ish arms.*  The  valiant  and  martyr-like  defence  of  Rhodes, 

*  The  Turks  made  several  attempts  against  Austria,  by  land,  at  a 
much  later  period,  and  advanced  even  as  far  as  Vienna, — the  last  time 
as  late  as  1683,  when  Sobiesky  freed  that  city  ;  but  the  danger  of 
their  overwhelming  Europe  must  be  considered  as  past,  after  the  bat 
tie  at  Lepanto. 

14* 


162  GREAT   EVENTS. 

although  it  ended  in  surrender,  because  Europe  would  nol 
send  any  aid,  must  be  considered  as  a  very  essential  ep- 
och in  this  long  struggle  between  the  Mohammedan  East 
and  the  Christian  West.  The  service  which  the  Knights  of 
Rhodes  rendered  to  Christian  civilization,  by  holding  out, 
so  long,  and  by  making  Rhodes  to  serve  as  a  mole  or 
breakwater  against  the  power  of  the  Turks,  was  eminent. 
When  the  Knights  of  Rhodes  had  left  that  island,  their 
head-quarters  remained  uncertain,  for  a  long  time,  until 
Charles  the  Fifth  gave  them  the  island  of  Malta,  on  con- 
dition of  perpetual  war  against  the  Infidels  and  the  pirates. 
Henceforward,  they  were  called  the  Knights  of  Malta. 
Upon  this  island,  they  sustained  another  violent  attack  of 
the  Turks  ;  but,  this  time,  the  valor  of  the  Knights,  under 
the  command  of  the  Grand-master  Lavalette,  was  crowned 
with  final  success,  in  maintaining  the  possession  of  the  isl- 
and, although  at  the  sacrifice  of  many  Knights,  and  only  by 
performing  deeds  very  similar  to  those  which  had  distin- 

fuished  their  predecessors  in  Rhodes.  The  period  of  the 
Yench  Revolution,  in  which  the  aspect  of  Europe  was 
changed,  in  so  many  respects,  witnessed,  also,  the  termina- 
tion of  this  Order,  which  had  long  changed  its  essential 
character. 

Recently,  papers  have  stated  that  the  Order  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John  has  been  revived,  by  the  King  of 
Naples  ;  for  what  purpose,  we  are  not  yet  informed.  Of 
course,  it  cannot  be  to  wage  perpetual  war  against  the  In- 
fidels, because,  since  Turkey  has  entered  into  the  regular 
diplomatic  connexion  with  the  other  powers  of  Europe,  and 
is  considered  as  an  integrant  part  of  the  political  system  of 
that  part  of  the  world,  every  attempt  at  fulfilling  the  an- 
cient vow  of  the  Knights,  of  perpetual  war  against  the 
Turks,  would  be  treated,  by  all  the  maritime  powers,  as 
piracy. 

I  have  selected,  from  the  whole  history  of  that  illustrious 
Order,  replete  with  stirring  events,  the  Siege  and  Surren- 
der of  Rhodes,  in  1522,  taken  from  Vertot's  '  History  of 
the  Knights  Hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,'  trans- 
lated from  the  French,  Edinburgh,  1770. 

RENE  AUBERT  DE  VERTOT  was  born  in  1655,  in  the 
country  of  Caux,  in  France.  He  entered  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal state,  not,  as  was  so  often  the  case  in  former  times,  by 
family  arran^-mr'nt,  because  he  was  the  second  son  of  a 
noble  family,  but  from  a  sincere  desire  of  his  own.  His 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  163 

ardent  piety  induced  him,  to  take  the  monastic  vows  of 
the  Capuchins,  without  the  knowledge  of  his  family.  His 
health,  however,  was  so  delicate,  that  the  rigid  rules  of  his 
order  threw  him  into  a  serious  sickness.  Friends  of  the 
family,  after  many  ineffectual  attempts,  at  length  prevailed 
upon  the  young  monk,  to  allow  them  to  obtain  for  him  the 
dispensation  of  the  Pope,  to  exchange  his  present  order, 
for  one  of  less  austere  rules.  After  various  changes,  ,he 
was  made  curate  of  a  small  place,  an  office  he  obtained  at 
his  own  desire.  In  1689,  he  published  his  '  History  of  the 
Conspiracy  of  Portugal,'  and,  seven  years  later,  his  '  His- 
tory of  the  Revolutions  of  Sweden.'  In  1701,  when  the 
French  Academy  was  reorganized,  Vertot  was  made  an 
academician  ;  and,  not  long  after,  went  to  reside  at  Paris, 
and  began  to  occupy  himself  solely  with  his  studies.  The 
Memoirs  of  the  Academy  contain  many  contributions  from 
his  pen.  He  now  wrote  the  History  of  the  Revolutions  of 
the  Roman  Republic  ;  a  work,  which,  though  a  favorite 
with  its  author,  is  without  critical  value,  and  stands  far  be- 
low the  present  standard  of  historical  science  ;  yet,  when 
it  appeared,  in  1719,  it  was  received  with  much  applause.* 
Owing,  probably,  to  the  reputation  obtained  by  this  Work, 
which  suited  an  age  not  very  critical  in  its  way  of  treating 
ancient  history,  and  which  became  the  more  popular,  per- 
haps, on  account  of  a  certain  happy  mediocrity  and  super- 
ficial ease,  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of  Malta  requested 
him  to  reduce  to  a  complete  history  their  glorious  annals, 
and  the  chronicles  they  already  possessed.  Vertot  agreed, 
and  the  Work,  whose  title  I  have  mentioned,  became  the 
production  of  his  advanced  age.  This  W^ork  is  no  more  a 
critical  history  than  his  other  writings,  and  cannot,  in  this 
respect,  be  compared  to  the  History  of  the  Templars,  by 
Wilcke,  Leipzig,  1827  ;  but  we  must  not  forget  that  a 
whole  century  elapsed  between  the  two  authors.  The  his- 
tory of  the  Hospitallers  goes  only  down  to  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Vertot  wrote  his  history  in  the  style 
of  his  time.  Scrupulous  detail,  or  attention  to  the  internal 
connexion  of  parts,  and  to  the  manner  in  which  one  is  nec- 
essarily produced  by  another,  had  less  importance,  in  his 
eyes,  than  the  dramatic  effect  of  prominent  actions.  Still, 

*  It  was  to  Vertot,  that  Lord  Stanhope,  one  of  the  ministers  of  George 
the  First,  applied  for  information,  respecting  the  formation  of  the  Ro- 
man senate,  the  election  of  the  members,  &c.  The  answer  of  Vertot 
was  unsatisfactory. 


164  GREAT   EVENTS. 

it  is  the  only  history  of  that  great  society  which  we  possess, 
the  chronicles  of  the  Order  being  inaccessible  to  most  per- 
sons. Vertot  died,  at  the  advanced  age  of  nearly  eighty 
years,  in  1735. 

The  Grand-master  of  the  Order,  at  the  time  of  the  sec- 
ond Siege  of  Rhodes,  was  Brother  Philip  de  Villiers  de 
1'Isle  Adam,  a  native  of  France.  His  unsuccessful  com- 
petitor had  been  Andrew  d'Amaral,  a  high  officer  in  the 
Order,  and  a  Portuguese  by  birth.  Amaral  had  conceived 
a  dislike  toward  1'lsle  Adam,  before  the  election,  which 
grew  into  a  deadly  hatred,  when  he  found  that  his  brother 
Knights  preferred  his  rival  to  himself.  It  is  necessary  to 
remember  this  fact,  as  the  cause  of  d'Amaral's  treachery, 
during  the  siege, — the  only  crime  of  this  kind  recorded 
in  the  history  of  the  Order.  It  is  even  reported,  that 
d'Amaral  sent  a  Turkish  slave  of  his  to  Constantinople, 
to  invite  the  Sultan  to  besiege  and  destroy  Rhodes  and  the 
whole  Order,  sending  him,  at  the  same  time,  a  detailed 
description  of  the  island,  With  its  fortifications. 

THE  Grand-master  prepared  for  the  siege,  with  all  the 
courage  and  precaution  of  an  old  captain,  who  had  passed 
his  whole  life  in  war. 

To  deprive  the  Turks  of  forage,  they,  by  his  orders, 
cut  down  the  corn,  though  it  was  not  yet  ripe.  Some 
country-houses,  as  well  as  churches,  situated  without  the 
town,  were  demolished,  and  the  materials  carried  into  the 
town,  for  fear  the  enemy  should  make  use  of  their  ruins, 
to  raise  platforms,  and  plant  their  artillery  on  them.  As 
another  precaution,  and  in  order  to  be  well  supplied  with 
pioneers,  they  obliged  all  the  peasants  of  the  country  to 
retire  into  the  town,  and  recalled,  at  the  same  time,  all 
the  adventurers  and  privateers,  that  were  cruising  against 
the  Infidels,  under  the  banner  of  the  Order,  whose  pro- 
tection they  had,  as  well  as  free  admittance  and  full  secu- 
rity, upon  occasion,  in  the  port  of  Rhodes. 

But  it  was  necessary  to  provide  for  the  subsistence  of 
these  people,  as  well  as  for  that  of  the  Knights,  the  citi- 
zens, and  the  garrison.  This  was  the  first  care  of  the 
Grand-master.  He  appointed  three  commissioners,  for 
that  purpose  ;  and,  to  give  them  the  greater  credit,  in 
the  execution  of  their  office,  he  chose  them  out  of  the 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  165 

Grand  Crosses.*  The  first  was  Gabriel  de  Pommer- 
ols,  Great  Commander  and  lieutenant-general  to  the 
Grand-master  ;  John  Buck,  Turcopolier,f  of  the  Lan- 
guage of  England,  was  the  second  ;  and  Chancellor  d' 
Ainaral  was  named  for  the  third.  These  three  noblemen 
visited  all  the  magazines,  carefully ;  and,  though  they 
found  most  of  them  full,  yet  the  Grand-master,  from  an 
opinion  that  what,  on  such  occasions,  is  called  sufficient, 
does  not  always  prove  so,  proposed,  in  the  council,  to 
send  immediately  to  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Candia,  for  a 
greater  quantity  of  wheat,  wine,  powder,  and  arms  ;  and 
to  endeavor,  likewise,  to  get  five  hundred  archers  and 
bowmen,  from  Candia, — the  Candiotes,  in  all  ages,  ex- 
celling even  the  most  warlike  nations,  in  the  managing 
of  those  instruments.  The  Chancellor,  who,  as  they 
pretend,  had  sold  his  religion  to  the  Infidels,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  effects  of  the  Grand-master's  precautions, 
represented,  that,  by  news  just  arrived  from  the  Christian 
isles  of  the  Archipelago,  they  were  informed,  that  the 
Turkish  armament  was  not  so  much  designed  against  the 
isles  of  the  Order,  as  against  that  of  Cyprus,  and  perhaps 
Italy  itself ;  that,  for  nearly  forty  years,  in  which  he  had 
been  in  the  Order,  he  had  frequently  observed,  that  the 
Turks  had  occasioned  it  more  expense  by  the  jealousy 
that  their  armaments  gave  them,  than  if  they  had  actually 
attacked  Rhodes  ;  that,  indeed,  the  care  and  precautions 
that  the  Grand-master  took  could  never  be  sufficiently 
applauded  ;  but  they  might  defer  the  execution  of  them 
for  some  time  longer,  for  fear  of  draining  the  treasury  of 
the  Order,  in  making  preparations  to  guard  against  a  storm, 
that  would  probably  fall  on  some  other  place. 

*  A  class  of  high  officers  among  the  Knights. 

t  The  Turcopoles,  whence  the  name  of  Turcopolier  is  derived,  were 
anciently,  as  William  of  Tyre  relates,  a  company  of  light-horse.  The 
original  of  the  term  came  from  the  Turcomans,  who  gave  the  name 
of  Turcopoles,  in  general,  to  such  children  as  were  born  of  a  Greek 
mother  and  a  Turcoman  father,  and  were  designed  for  the  war  ser- 
vice. It  was  afterwards  a  title  of  military  dignity,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Cyprus,  whence  it  was  adopted  into  the  Order  of  St.  John.  But  the 
Hospitallers  used  it,  only  to  signify  the  colonel-general  of  the  infan- 
try.— Vertot 


166  GREAT  EVENTS. 

The  Grand-master,  who  was  ignorant  of  the  motives 
of  this  perfidious  advice,  imputed  it  only  to  an  injudicious 
spirit  of  parsimony  ;  but  he  declared,  that  he  had  letters 
from  a  faithful  spy,  whom  he  kept  at  Constantinople,  and 
on  whom  he  could  depend,  who  assured  him,  that  the 
Grand  Signior's  armament  was  designed  only  for  the 
siege  of  Rhodes  ;  that  he  had  given  orders  to  let  no  ship 
go  out  of  his  ports,  that  was  bound  towards  Rhodes  ;  that 
they  were  laboring  hard,  in  preparing  a  train  of  large  artil- 
lery, which  is  never  used  but  in  sieges  ;  that  the  Sultan 
had  caused  a  great  quantity  of  tools  to  be  made,  proper 
for  pioneering ;  and  that  most  of  the  troops  were  filing 
towards  Lycia,  where  they  were  to  embark,  in  order  to 
be  transported  into  the  isle  of  Rhodes. 

The  Grand-master's  advice  prevailed.  They  obtain- 
ed wheat,  from  Naples  and  Sicily,  so  that  there  was  no 
want  of  any  thing,  during  the  whole  course  of  the  siege, 
but  powder,  which  happened  through  the  treachery  of 
the  Chancellor,  who  made  a  false  report  of  the  quantity 
in  the  magazines.  They  had  also  like  to  have  wanted 
wine,  through  the  same  perfidiousness  ;  the  Chancellor 
having,  under  a  pretence  of  thriftiness,  rejected  the  pro- 
posals of  three  merchants  of  Rhodes,  who  offered  to 
supply  the  city  with  it,  at  a  reasonable  price.  But  the 
Grand-master,  whose  views  extended  on  all  sides,  sent 
into  Candia,*  a  serving  brother,  Anthony  Bosio  by 
name,  uncle  to  the  author  of  the  Annals  of  the  Order, 
with  orders  to  provide  great  store  of  wine,  and  to  pro- 
cure leave,  also,  from  the  Governor  of  the  island,  to  levy 
five  hundred  foot.  Bosio,  arriving  in  Candia,  had  no 
difficulty  in  getting  the  wine,  which  he  shipped  off",  in 
fifteen  brigantines  ;  he  was  even  cunning  enough  to  engage 
a  young  Venetian  gentleman,  whose  name  was  Bonaldi, 
and  who  had,  at  that  time,  in  the  port  of  Candia,  a  ship 
freighted  with  wine,  and  bound  for  Constantinople,  to 
alter  his  course,  and  carry  it  to  Rhodes. 

Hut  the  serving  brother  did  not  find  it  so  easy  a  mattei 
to  levy  soldiers.  The  Governor  not  only  denied  hiir. 

*  Candia  belonged,  at  that  time,  to  the  Republic  of  Venice. 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF   RHODES.  167 

leave,  but,  as  if  he  dreaded  Soliman's  resentment,  for 
bade,  by  sound  of  trumpet,  all  persons,  whatsoever,  under 
pain  of  corporal  punishment,  to  list  themselves  with  the 
Grand-master's  agent,  or  quit  the  island.  Notwithstand- 
ing which,  the  dexterous  Rhodian  made  a  shift  to  get  his 
recruit,  and  above  five  hundred  men,  disguised  like  mer- 
chants and  seamen,  on  board  the  brigantines,  either  un- 
known to  the  Governor,  or  without  his  being  willing  to 
take  notice  of  it.  This  cunning  negotiator  did  another 
piece  of  service  to  the  Order,  before  he  set  sail.  There 
was,  at  that  time,  in  the  isle  of  Candia,  an  excellent  en- 
gineer, Gabriel  Martinengo,  by  name,  a  gentleman  of 
Brescia,  a  subject  of  the  republic,*  and  of  an  ancient 
and  illustrious  family.  The  senate  had  given  him  a  pen- 
sion of  twelve  hundred  crowns,  to  superintend  all  the 
fortifications  of  that  island.  Bosio,  who  foresaw  how 
useful  a  man  of  his  abilities  would  be,  in  a  place  that 
was  besieged,  proposed  to  him  to  go  to  Rhodes,  and  to 
share  with  the  Knights  in  the  glory  which  they  hoped  to 
acquire,  in  the  defence  of  it.  Martinengo,  a  man  of  true 
valor,  and  who  was  both  a  brave  soldier  and  a  great  en- 
gineer, offered  cheerfully  to  accept  his  invitation,  provid- 
ed he  could  procure  a  discharge  from  the  Governor. 

Bosio  departed  for  Rhodes,  with  his  soldiers  and  pro- 
visions of  wine.  The  Grand-master  sent  him  immediately 
back  to  Candia,  with  a  letter  to  the  Governor,  wherein 
he  entreated  him,  in  the  most  pressing  terms,  to  give 
that  officer  leave  to  come  and  defend  a  place,  which 
served  for  a  bulwark  to  the  very  islands  of  the  repub- 
lic. But  the  Governor  flatly  refused  to  grant  this  re- 
quest, and  went  so  far  as  to  send  for  Martinengo,  and  give 
him  express  orders,  not  to  stir  out  of  the  island.  But  that 
officer,  not  troubling  himself  about  the  consequences,  put 
on  a  disguise,  and,  in  concert  with  Bosio,  came  to  the  sea- 
side, and  got  on  board  a  felucca,  that  waited  for  him  in  a 
by-creek  of  the  isle. 

The  Governor,  having  notice  that  the  engineer  had 
disappeared,  caused  a  strict  search  to  be  made  after  him, 

*  Of  Venice. 


168  GREAT  EVENTS. 

in  the  principal  houses.  He  sent  to  his  own,  where  he 
confiscated  all  his  effects  ;  and,  not  questioning  but  he 
had  embarked  in  some  passage-ship,  he  sent  two  galleys 
to  pursue  him,  with  orders  to  bring  him  back,  dead  or 
alive.  Martinengo  and  Bosio,  seeing  themselves  pur- 
sued, took  down  the  mast  of  the  felucca,  drew  their  oars 
into  their  vessel,  and  brought  it  close  under  a  rock  of  the 
island,  covering  it  with  sails,  made  of  whitish  linen,  almost 
of  the  same  color  as  the  rock  that  the  felucca  lay  under. 
By  this  artifice,  and  perhaps  by  the  secret  connivance 
of  the  Governor,  they  escaped  the  galleys,  which  return- 
ing back  into  the  port,  they  set  sail,  passed,  in  the  night 
time,  through  some  Turkish  vessels,  which,  by  means  of 
Bosio's  speaking  the  Greek  language,  took  the  brigantine 
to  belong  to  their  own  squadron,  and  arrived  safe  at 
Rhodes.  Martinengo  was  mighty  well  received  by  the 
Grand-master,  who  knew  his  birth  and  his  talents.  The 
principal  commanders,  following  his  example,  showed 
him  the  utmost  respect.  Every  body  was  striving  to 
show  him  how  sensible  they  were  of  his  merit.  Marti- 
nengo, also,  was  delighted  to  see  himself  esteemed  by  that 
noble  body  of  Knights,  the  best  judges  of  valor,  and  which 
was  composed  of  the  most  illustrious  persons,  in  all  the 
states  of  Christendom.  From  these  sentiments,  that 
savored  perhaps  too  much  of  human  nature,  he  passed 
to  those  of  a  particular  veneration,  when  he  saw  these 
Knights  and  warriors  preparing  themselves,  like  Christians 
and  true  religious,  for  the  defence  of  religion.  Under  a 
soldier's  habit,  and  with  a  military  equipage,  he  admired 
their  contempt  of  the  world,  their  lively  faith,  and  sincere 
disengagement  from  the  things  of  this  life  :  he  was  partic- 
ularly edified,  to  see  most  of  them  preparing  themselves 
for  a  bloody  siege,  by  a  frequent  receiving  of  the  sacra- 
ments. 

These  reflections  gave  rise  to  his  vocation.  He  saw 
himself  exposed  to  the  same  dangers,  without  the  same 
holy  preparation.  God  touched  his  heart ;  he  ran  to  the 
Grand-master's  palace,  throw  liimsoif  at  his  feet,  and, 
inflamed  with  zeal  to  sacrifice  his  life  for  the  defence  of 
the  faith,  entreated  that  prince  to  honor  him  with  his 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  169 

cross.  The  Grand-master  took  him  up,  and  embraced 
him  tenderly,  assuring  him,  that  he  would  immediately 
propose  his  request  to  the  council,  and  acquaint  them 
with  his  pious  dispositions.  The  votes  were  unanimous 
in  his  favor  ;  the  whole  Order  was  delighted  to  associate 
so  excellent  a  man  in  it.  The  Grand-master  gave  him 
the  habit,  and  administered  the  vows  to  him,  in  a  full 
assembly  ;  and,  to  acknowledge  the  generosity  where- 
with he  had  abandoned  his  patrimony,  and  the  great  pen- 
sions he  had  from  the  republic  of  Venice,  the  Order 
assigned  him  a  pension  of  twelve  hundred  crowns,  till 
such  time  as  he  might  have  some  commandry  or  priory,* 
of  the  like  value  given  him.  As  a  further  favor  to  the 
new  Knight,  the  Grand-master  made  him,  the  next  day, 
a  grand  cross,  and  gave  him,  at  the  same  time,  the  gen- 
eral inspection  over  all  the  fortifications  ;  and  the  Grand- 
marshal,  who  is  standing  General  of  all  the  troops  of  the 
Order,  divided,  as  it  were,  his  authority  with  him.  He 
admitted  him,  out  of  the  high  regard  he  had  to  his  great 
capacity,  into  the  command  and  authority  which  his  post 
gave  him  over  all  the  forces  in  the  island. 

It  was  by  the  advice  and  directions  of  Martinengo, 
that  they  repaired  the  walls  and  towers.  He  caused 
them  to  raise  the  ramparts  higher  ;  they  built  ravelins 
before  the  gates  of  the  city  ;  made  casemates  in  the 
flanks  of  the  bastions,  and  in  the  counterscarp  of  the 
ditch  mines,  filled  with  powder,  to  which  they  might  set 
fire  by  the  help  of  a  train  laid  under  ground.  Within 
the  place,  he  caused  them  to  build  new  forts,  cuts,  ditch- 
es, intrenchments,  barricades,  and  all  kinds  of  necessary 
defences,  that  a  person  of  his  capacity,  who  foresaw 
every  thing  that  might  happen,  could  oppose  against  the 
attacks  of  the  besiegers. 

Whilst  the  Order  was  receiving  such  advantages  from 
his  skill  and  his  great  talents,  particularly  at  a  time  when 
they  were  going  to  be  besieged,  there  happened  a  kind 
of  desertion  among  the  Knights  of  the  Language  of  Italy. 

*  Commandry  or  priory  was  the  command  over  and  enjoy- 
ment of  revenues  of  a  certain  amount  of  land,  &c.,  belonging  to  the 
Order. 

15  6.   E. 


170  GREAT  EVENTS. 

The  Principal  of  that  nation  complained  to  the  Grand- 
master and  the  council,  that  Pope  Adrian  the  Sixth,  who 
had  just  succeeded  Leo  the  Tenth,  disposed,  in  an  abso- 
lute manner,  and  contrary  to  their  rights,  of  all  the  com- 
mandries  of  Italy,  and  thereupon  asked  leave  to  go  to 
Rome,  to  complain  of  it.  The  Grand-master  did  not 
think  fit,  in  the  present  juncture,  to  grant  them  the  leave 
they  desired.  His  refusal  exasperated  them  ;  and  d'Am- 
aral,  who  lost  no  opportunity  of  weakening  the  Order, 
insinuated  to  them,  that  they  themselves  ought  to  take 
a  permission  which  he  denied  them  ;  that  1'Isle  Adam, 
who  was  a  Frenchman  by  birth,  did  not  love  the  Lan- 
guage of  Italy  ;  that,  in  order  to  keep  them  low,  he  was 
not  perhaps  concerned  at  the  Pope's  taking  from  them 
the  commandries  annexed  to  their  Language  ;  that  the 
Grand-master  spread  and  encouraged  the  reports  of  an 
approaching  siege,  with  the  view  only  of  having  a  pre- 
tence to  dispose  the  more  freely  of  the  funds  that  were 
in  the  treasury  of  the  Order  ;  and  that,  after  all,  it  would 
be  a  dishonor  to  them,  if,  after  shedding  their  blood,  so 
often,  in  the  defence  of  the  Order,  they  should,  by  an 
odious  distinction,  be  the  only  persons  deprived  of  the 
recompense  so  justly  due  to  their  services. 

The  Italian  Knights,  seduced  by  this  perfidious  advice, 
left  Rhodes,  without  leave,  and  retired  into  the  isle  of 
Candia.  The  Grand-master,  justly  provoked  at  so 
scandalous  a  disobedience,  ordered  them  to  be  prosecut- 
ed, as  rebels  and  deserters  ;  and  the  council  deprived 
them  of  the  habit,  by  an  express  sentence  to  this  pur- 
pose. However  just  this  sentence  might  be,  the  Order 
nevertheless  lost  in  them,  a  considerable  number  of  val- 
iant Knights.  Some  of  their  friends,  better  affected  than 
the  Chancellor,  went  over  to  Candia,  with  the  Grand- 
master's private  consent ;  and,  after  having  dexterously 
entered  into  their  complaints  and  resentments,  represent- 
ed to  them,  that  there  was  no  longer  any  doubt  to  be 
made  of  the  siege  of  Rhodes  ;  that  they  would  see  the 
island  immediately  covered  over  with  the  Turks  ;  and 
that,  though  the  motive  of  their  journey  to  Rome  was 
never  so  just,  they  yet  could  not  prevent  their  enemies 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  171 

spreading  a  report,  that  they  had  made  it,  at  such  a  June 
ture,  with  a  view  only  of  getting  out  of  the  way  of  those 
dangers  to  which  their  brethren  were  going  to  be  ex- 
posed. 

The  certainty  of  the  siege  of  Rhodes,  and  the  fear 
they  were  under  of  being  suspected  to  have  withdrawn 
themselves,  from  so  cowardly  a  motive,  prevailed  over 
their  resentment.  They  returned  to  Rhodes,  to  throw 
themselves  at  the  Grand-master's  feet  ;  and,  that  they 
might  obtain  pardon  for  their  fault,  they  protested,  that 
they  would  wash  it  out  with  their  blood,  and  with  that  of 
the  Infidels.  The  Grand-master  received  them,  like  a  ten- 
der father  ;  and,  after  having  given  them  a  wise  reproof,  for 
their  disobedience,  the  generous  old  man  embraced  them, 
with  great  tenderness,  gave  them  the  habit,  again,  and 
promised  them,  that,  as  soon  as  they  should  be  free  from 
the  war,  with  which  they  were  threatened,  the  whole 
Order  should  interest  itself  in  their  affair  ;  that  he  would 
make  it  his  own  ;  and  that,  as  their  complaints  were  just 
and  reasonable,  he  was  in  hopes,  that  the  several  princes 
of  Christendom  would  not  refuse  him  their  good  offices 
with  the  Pope. 

This  storm  being  happily  calmed,  the  Grand-master 
immediately  despatched  Knights  to  all  the  courts  of  Eu- 
rope, who  were  to  solicit  the  Pope  and  the  other  princes 
of  Christendom  to  send  him  speedy  succors.  But  the 
event  showed,  that  the  Order  could  depend  on  nothing 
but  its  own  strength.  Most  of  the  princes,  engaged  in 
war  with  one  another,  and  minding  only  their  private  in- 
terests, neglected  those  of  religion  ;  and  the  Pope  him- 
self, though  a  virtuous  pontiff,  yet,  as  he  owed  his  dignity 
to  the  credit  and  recommendation  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
the  Fifth,  whose  preceptor  he  had  been,  he  durst  not 
dispose  of  the  troops  and  money  of  the  Holy  See,  with- 
out his  privity  and  consent. 

The  Grand-master,  being  in  no  certainty  of  these  re- 
mote succors,  placed  all  his  confidence  in  the  protection 
of  Heaven,  and  in  the  valor  of  his  Knights.  Like  a 
thorough  soldier,  he  neglected  no  precaution  necessary  to 
prevent  being  surprised  by  the  Infidels.  One  of  the  first 


172  GREAT   EVENTS. 

of  his  many  cares,  so  worthy  of  his  zeal  and  courage,  was 
a  general  review  of  all  the  Knights  and  regular  troops  ; 
which  amounted,  in  all,  to  about  six  hundred  Knights,  and 
four  thousand  five  hundred  soldiers  ;  and,  with  this  hand- 
ful of  men,  he  undertook  to  defend  the  place  against  the 
inundations  of  those  formidable  armies,  that  Soliman 
brought  into  the  field,  in  all  his  enterprises.  The  towns 
men,  indeed,  of  Rhodes,  took  up  arms,  and  some  com 
panies  were  formed  out  of  them.  They  also  recalled 
the  Rhodian  privateers,  that  were  out  at  sea  ;  these  were 
posted  in  the  town,  and  were  charged  with  the  defence  of 
the  port.  The  country  peasants  were  designed  to  serve 
as  pioneers  ;  but  they  could  not  afterwards  make  any  use, 
at  all,  of  the  common  people  of  the  town,  who  were  in- 
sensible to  any  passion,  but  that  of  fear,  and  could  never 
be  brought  to  look  danger  in  the  face.  The  Grand- 
master gave  brother  Didier  Tholon  of  St.  Jaille,  bailiff 
of  Manosque,  the  direction  of  the  artillery,  and  the  Chev- 
aliers de  Nueres  and  Britto  were  intrusted  with  the  car- 
rying on  of  the  works,  under  the  orders  of  the  Bailiff  de 
Martinengo.  The  slaves  of  Rhodes,  and  such  as  be- 
longed to  the  private  persons,  were  employed  in  hollow- 
ing the  ditches,  and  in  the  fortifications  which  they  added 
to  the  bastion  of  Auvergne.  They  repaired  the  mills  ; 
they  built  new  ovens  ;  the  port  was  shut  up  with  a  double 
chain,  one,  before  its  mouth,  the  other,  within  it,  from 
the  tower  of  St.  Nicholas  to  the  tower  of  the  mills  ;  and, 
to  prevent  the  Infidels  from  seizing  on  the  mole,  as  they 
had  attempted,  in  the  former  siege,  and  advancing,  by 
means  of  that  bank,  as  far  as  the  gate  of  St.  Catharine, 
they  sunk,  at  the  entrance  of  the  bay,  where  the  Tunny 
fishery  was,  several  ships,  laden  with  stones.  The  walls 
were,  at  the  same  time,  lined  with  artillery.  They  car- 
ried arms,  grenadoes,  fire-pots,  and  large  stones,  upon 
the  ramparts  and  bastions.  There  never  had  been  seen 
a  greater  diligence,  or  a  more  complete  order. 

The  Knights  and  the  Greek  gentlemen,  the  townsmen 
as  well  as  officers,  the  soldier  and  mariner,  the  very 
priests  and  monks,  each  of  these  employed  himself,  read- 
ily and  without  confusion,  upon  whatever  was  prescribed 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  173 

him.  The  Grand-master  was  present,  in  all  places. 
He,  alone,  inspected  the  carrying  on  of  these  several 
works  ;  his  presence  and  capacity  advanced  them  still 
more  than  the  many  hands  employed  about  them  ;  and 
few  princes  and  governors  ever  gave  such  manifest  proofs, 
in  a  besieged  place,  of  so  perfect  an  understanding  of  the 
art  of  war,  joined  to  a  calm  valor,  incapable  of  being  dis- 
composed, either  by  the  greatness  or  the  variety  of  the 
dangers  with  which  he  was  afterwards  surrounded. 

The  city  of  Rhodes,  as  we  have  already  observed,  is 
situated  by  the  seaside,  on  a  hill,  which  terminates,  with 
a  gentle  descent,  into  a  plain,  thereby  making  the  circum- 
vallation  of  it  easy.  It  is  divided  into  the  high  and  low 
town.  The  Grand-master's  palace  was  in  the  high  town, 
and  served  as  a  castle  and  a  citadel  to  it,  at  the  same 
time.  All  the  Knights  were  lodged  near  the  Grand-mas- 
ter's palace,  in  the  same  quarter  ;  and  all  the  secular  and 
married  persons,  as  well  townsmen  as  artificers,  dwelt  in 
the  lower  town.  The  place,  on  the  side  towards  the 
country,  seems  to  be  of  a  round  figure  ;  but,  when  seen 
from  the  sea,  represents  a  perfect  crescent.  There  are 
two  ports  belonging  to  it  ;  the  larger  is  square  and  spa- 
cious, but  not  very  safe  when  certain  winds  blow.  At 
the  entrance  of  this  port,  on  the  right,  stands  the  tower 
of  St.  Nicholas,  a  monument  of  the  liberality  of  Philip, 
the  good  Duke  of  Burgundy.  This  tower,  well  provided 
with  artillery,  was  joined  to  a  bastion,  that  lay  behind  it, 
and  had  a  curtain,  which  ran  up  to  the  walls  of  the  town, 
and  made  one  of  the  sides  of  the  port.  On  the  other 
side,  over  against  this  tower,  stood  an  old  castle,  to 
which  the  Knights  gave  the  name  of  the  castle  of  St.  An- 
gelo.  This  castle,  and  the  tower,  which  were  somewhat 
more  than  a  hundred  yards  distant  from  one  another,  were 
built  upon  the  two  rocks,  upon  which  it  is  pretended  that 
the  feet  of  the  great  brazen  Colossus  stood,  in  former 
times,  and  which  was  of  so  prodigious  a  bulk,  that  the 
greatest  vessels,  as  we  are  told,  might  pass,  with  all  their 
sails  spread,  between  its  legs.  The  bastion,  adjoining  to 
the  tower  of  St.  Nicholas,  was,  by  the  seaside,  provided 
with  nine  great  pieces  of  cannon,  which  commanded  the 


174  GREAT   EVENTS. 

entry  of  the  port,  so  entirely,  that  no  ship  could  enter  in, 
on  any  side.  The  litile  port,  or  port  of  the  galleys,  was 
covered,  towards  the  sea,  with  a  narrow  neck  of  rock, 
that  ran  out  from  the  firm  land,  and  had  a  castle  upon  it, 
called,  by  the  Knights,  the  castle  of  St.  Elme,  or  St. 
Enne.  This  port  is  more  secure  than  large,  and  may 
hold  several  galleys  ;  but  the  mouth  of  it  is  so  narrow, 
that  there  cannot  above  one  enter,  at  a  time.  They 
shut  it  up,  every  evening,  with  a  chain,  that  was  fastened 
to  a  little  tower,  at  the  further  end  of  a  mole  which  runs 
about  twenty-five  or  thirty  paces  out  into  the  sea  ;  the  oth- 
er end  of  the  chain  was  fastened  to  a  piece  of  rock,  that 
jutted  out  from  the  land,  seven  or  eight  paces  from  the 
castle.  Near  the  port  of  the  galleys  stood  the  arsenal, 
where  they  used  to  be  built ;  and  over  against  the  bas- 
tion, which  is  between  the  two  ports,  there  is  a  large 
tower,  with  a  ditch,  and  three  great  pieces  of  cannon, 
which  defended  the  entrance  of  this  last  port.  Above 
the  prince's  palace  and  the  inns  of  the  Languages,  were 
a  great  number  of  churches,  among  which,  that  of  St. 
John,  the  patron  of  the  Order,  was  remarkable  for  the 
greatness  of  the  edifice,  and  the  height  and  fine  workman- 
ship of  its  steeple.  All  these  noble  buildings,  together 
with  the  fortifications,  both  ancient  and  modern,  made 
Rhodes  one  of  the  finest  cities  of  the  East.  It  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  double  (others  say  with  a  triple)  enclosure 
of  walls,  fortified  with  thirteen  large  towers,  built  after 
the  antique  fashion,  five  of  which  lay  within  a  sort  of 
ravelin  and  bastion,  which  the  historians  of  the  time  call 
bulwarks  ;  and  these  bulwarks  were  covered  by  barbicans, 
or  faussebrayes,*  and  other  advanced  works.  The  ditch 
was  large  and  deep  ;  the  counterscarp  well  faced  and 
palisadoed.  All  that  lay  open,  in  the  parts  adjacent  to 
the  place,  was  exposed  to  an  infinite  number  of  batteries, 
composed  of  cannon  of  different  bores,  according  to  the 
nearness  or  distance  of  the  places  in  view.  Rhodes 
seemed  to  defy  an  attack,  on  all  sides  ;  and  from  the 
glacis  to  the  body  of  the  place,  there  was  nothing  but  for- 

*  Small  morndfl  of  earth,  about  twenty-four  feet  wide,  erected  om 
evel  ground  at  the  foot  of  a  rampart. 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  175 

tifications,  heaped  one  upon  another,  and  batteries,  that 
suffered  no  approaches  to  be  made,  without  danger  and 
loss  of  men. 

We  have  said,  upon  the  credit  of  the  historians  of  that 
age,  that  there  were  five  bulwarks,  or  bastions.  The 
Grand-master  committed  the  defence  of  them  to  five  old 
Knights,  who  had  given  signal  proofs  of  their  capacity  and 
courage,  on  many  occasions.  The  Chevalier  de  Mesnil 
had  the  care  of  defending  the  bastion  of  Auvergne  ; 
Brother  Francis  de  Carrieres  was  posted  in  that  of 
Spain  ;  Nicholas  Hussey  was  to  command  in  that  of 
England  ;  Berenger  de  Lioncel  in  that  of  Provence  ; 
and  Andelot  Gentili  undertook  to  defend  the  bastion  of 
Italy.  The  Grand-master  distributed,  at  the  same  time, 
the  best  part  of  his  troops  upon  the  ramparts,  and  divided 
them,  according  to  their  quarters.  Brother  Raimond  de 
Ricard,  the  oldest  Commander  of  the  Language  of  Prov- 
ence, was  at  the  head  of  a  brigade,  to  take  care  of  a  post 
that  bore  the  same  name.  Raimond  Roger,  of  the  Lan- 
guage of  Auvergne,  was  pitched  upon  for  the  quarter  of 
his  Language  ;  Joachim  de  St.  Aubin,  with  the  French 
Knights,  was  to  defend  the  wall',  from  the  Franque  tower 
as  far  as  the  gate  of  St.  Ambrose,  and  from  that  gate  as 
far  as  that  of  St.  George.  The  Germans  were  posted 
under  the  conduct  of  the  Commander  Valdners  ;  William 
Ouazon  commanded  in  the  quarter  of  the  English ;  George 
Emar  in  that  of  Italy  ;  John  de  Barbarar  and  Ernard 
Sollier  were  to  defend  the  posts  of  Castile  and  Aragon, 
where  the  ditches  were  neither  broad  nor  deep  enough. 
The  quarter  called  St.  Marie  de  la  Victoire,*  was  still 
weaker  ;  the  Grand-master  undertook  the  defence  of  it 
himself,  quitted  his  palace,  and  lodged  at  the  foot  of  the 
wall,  with  some  Knights  that  he  had  reserved  to  fight  un- 
der his  own  command,  and  near  his  person. 

Besides  this  distribution,  the  Grand-master  chose,  like- 
wise, four  lords,  all  of  them  grand-crosses,  to  whom  they 
gave  the  title  of  adjutant  captains,  or  generals,  who,  with 
the  companies  under  their  command,  were  a  sort  of  corps 

*  St.  Mary  of  the  Victory.— I. 


176  GREAT  EVENTS. 

de  reserve,  and  were  to  march  to  such  places  as  were 
most  pressed.  The  first  of  these  captains  was  d'Ama- 
ral,  whose  fidelity  they  did  not,  as  yet,  suspect.  His 
business  was,  to  sustain  those  that  defended  the  posts  of 
Auvergne  and  Germany  ;  Brother  John  Buck,  Turco- 
polier*  of  the  Order,  and  a  Knight  of  the  Language  of 
England,  was  appointed  for  the  quarter  of  Spain  and 
England ;  Brother  Peter  de  Cluys,  Grand  Prior  of 
France,  was  to  sustain  those  of  his  own  nation,  and  the 
posts  of  Castile  and  Portugal ;  and  Brother  Gregory  de 
Morgut,  Grand  Prior  of  Navarre,  was  assigned  to  march 
to  the  succor  of  the  posts  of  Provence  and  Italy.  The 
Grand-master  added  to  these  four  lords,  Brother  Gabriel 
de  Pommerols,  his  lieutenant-general,  who,  without  hav- 
ing any  settled  post  and  quarter,  was  to  go  to  all  places 
where  there  should  be  need  ;  and  the  Grand-master,  at 
the  head  of  his  guards,  commanded  by  the  Chevalier  de 
Bonneval,  of  the  Language  of  Auvergne,  reserved  the 
same  function  to  himself. 

We  have  already  observed,!  that,  before  the  first  siege, 
they  carried  into  the  city  a  statue  of  the  Holy  Virgin, 
which  was  revered  in  a-  church  dedicated  to  her,  and 
built  upon  Mount  Philerme.  They  took  the  same  pre- 
caution, before  this  second  siege,  and  all  the  clergy  and 
people  went  in  procession  to  the  church,  to  take  it,  and 
brought  it  into  the  city,  (whereof  she  was  considered  as 
the  protectress,)  and  deposited  it  in  the  church  of  St 
Mark. 

The  tower  of  St.  Nicholas  being  looked  upon  as  the 
most  important  post,  and  as  the  key  of  Rhodes,  the 
Grand-master  intrusted  the  defence  of  it  to  Brother 
Guyot  de  Castelane,  of  the  Language  of  Provence,  an 
old  Knight,  who  had  distinguished  himself  by  a  great 
number  of  brave  actions.  Twenty  Knights  and  three 
hundred  foot  entered  into  the  fortress,  under  his  com- 
mand ;  they  gave  six  hundred  men  to  the  Knights,  Claude 
de  St.  Prix  and  John  Boniface,  both  Frenchmen,  and  to 

*  See  note  on  p.  165. 

t  In  a  part  of  Vertot'*  Work  previous  to  that  from  which  this  ao 
count  is  extracted. — I. 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  177 

Lopez  d'Aiala  and  Hugh  Capon,  Spaniards,  to  patrol 
round  the  city,  night  and  day,  in  their  turn,  and  to  main- 
tain good  order  in  it,  with  power  to  judge  and  condemn 
malefactors  to  death,  reserving,  however,  a  liberty  of  ap- 
pealing to  the  Grand-master.  This  prince,  fearing  that 
the  four  grand-crosses,  whom  he  had  chosen  for  adjutant- 
captains,  would  not,  during  the  course  of  the  siege,  be 
sufficient  to  carry  relief  to  all  places  that  should  be  at- 
tacked, added  four  others  to  them  ;  namely,  Anastasius  de 
Sainte  Camelle,  Guyot  Dazas,  French  Knights,  and  Ma- 
rin  Furfan  and  Raimond  Marquet,  Spaniards,  and  gave 
each  of  them  a  company  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  men. 
The  Grand  Marshal,  according  to  the  rights  of  his  office, 
gave  the  great  standard  of  the  Order  to  Anthony  de  Gro- 
lee,  of  the  province  of  Dauphine,  a  Knight  of  distinguish- 
ed valor,  and  well  worthy  of  so  honorable  a  trust.  The 
Chevalier  de  Tinteville,  a  relation  of  the  Grand-master's, 
was  appointed  to  carry  the  standard  of  the  holy  crucifix, 
and  the  Chevalier  Henri  de  Mauselle,  one  of  the  officers 
of  the  Grand-master's  household,  carried  his  particular 
standard. 

Whilst  the  Grand-master  was  employed  in  assigning 
the  Knights  their  several  employments,  and  the  quarters 
which  they  were  to  defend,  they  saw  that  the  Turks  were, 
in  the  night,  making  signals  of  fire,  upon  that  part  of  the 
coast  of  Lycia  that  lies  opposite  to  the  isle  of  Rhodes. 

The  Grand-master,  that  he  might  not  neglect  any 
thing,  ordered  a  French  Knight,*  whose  name  was  Men- 
netou,  to  take  his  pink,f  and  go  with  a  Rhodian,  named 
Jaxi,  who  spoke  the  Turkish  language,  to  find  out  the 
meaning  of  those  fires.  The  French  Knight,  pursuant  to 
his  orders,  put  to  sea,  and,  coming  pretty  near  the  coast, 
perceived  several  Turkish  soldiers,  disguised  like  mer- 
chants, standing  by  the  side  of  a  fountain.  Jaxi  asked 
them  the  reason  of  their  signals,  and  inquired,  at  the  same 
time,  for  a  Turkish  merchant  of  his  acquaintance,  who 
had  formerly  traded  at  Rhodes.  They  answered  him, 

*  Relation  du  commandeur  de  Bourbon,  p.  13. 
t  A  small  sailing  ship. 


178  GREAT   EVENTS. 

that  that  merchant  was  not  far  off ;  that  he  was  coming 
thither  ;  and  that  he  might  see  him,  if  he  would  come 
ashore.  The  Rhodian  excused  himself,  unless  they 
would  send  a  hostage  to  his  commander.  The  Turks 
agreed  to  this,  and  the  exchange  was  made  ;  but,  as  soon 
as  Jaxi  was  ashore,  these  perfidious  wretches,  contrary 
to  the  law  of  nations,  bound  him,  hurried  him  away,  in 
all  haste,  to  Constantinople,  and  delivered  him  to  Pyrrhus 
Basha,  the  author  and  director  of  this  piece  of  treachery. 
Mennetou  thought  to  take  his  revenge  on  the  Turkish 
hostage  ;  but,  when  he  came  back  to  Rhodes,  they  found 
that  he  was  only  a  sorry  peasant,  whom  they  had  dressed 
in  a  silk  vest,  and  from  whom  the  Grand-master  and 
council  could  get  no  manner  of  information. 

In  the  mean  time,  Pyrrhus,  having  the  Rhodian  in  his 
power,  endeavored  to  get  an  account,  from  him,  of  the 
state  of  the  city  of  Rhodes  ;  and,  not  being  able  to  gain 
upon  him,  by  civilities  and  hopes  of  great  reward,  he 
put  him  to  such  violent  torture,  for  several  days  together, 
that  the  Greek,  no  longer  able  to  bear  it,  answered  the 
nterrogatories  that  were  put  to  him,  and  died,  soon  after. 
Pyrrhus  acquainted  the  Grand  Signior  with  the  Rhodi- 
an's  deposition,  and  assured  his  master,  that  there  were 
not  above  five  or  six  thousand  men,  in  arms,  at  Rhodes. 
Soliman  resolved  immediately  to  begin  the  siege  ;  but, 
as  it  was  a  rule  with  him  never  to  begin  any  war,  without 
a  previous  declaration  of  it,  he  sent  one  by  an  express, 
who  went  into  Lycia,  and,  according  to  custom,  made 
the  usual  signals  with  fires. 

The  Grand-master  sent  a  Knight,  with  a  galley,  on 
board  of  which  the  Turks  threw  a  packet  of  letters  tied 
to  a  stone.  He  carried  the  packet  to  the  Grand-master, 
and  it  was  opened  in  full  council  :  they  found  in  it,  a  let- 
ter of  Soliman,  in  the  form  of  a  declaration  of  war,  di- 
rected to  the  Grand-master,  to  the  Knights  in  general, 
and  to  the  citizens  and  inhabitants  of  Rhodes.  This  let- 
ter of  defiance  was  drawn  up  pretty  nearly  in  these  terms  : 

"  The  continual  robberies  with  which  you  infest  our 
faithful  subjects,  and  the  insult  you  offer  to  our  Imperial 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  179 

majesty,  oblige  us  to  require  you  to  deliver  up  to  us,  im- 
mediately, the  island  and  fortress  of  Rhodes.  If  you  do 
it  readily,  we  swear,  by  the  God  who  made  heaven  and 
earth,  by  the  six-and-twenty  thousand  prophets,  and  the 
four  musaphi  that  fell  from  heaven,  and  by  our  great 
prophet,  Mohammed,  that  you  shall  have  free  liberty  to 
go  out  of  the  island,  and  the  inhabitants  to  stay  there, 
without  the  least  injury  being  done  to  you  :  but,  if  you 
do  not  submit,  immediately,  to  our  orders,  you  shall  all 
be  cut  to  pieces,  with  our  terrible  sword,  and  the  towers, 
bastions,  and  walls,  of  Rhodes  shall  be  laid  level  with  the 
grass  that  grows  at  the  foot  of  all  those  fortifications." 

This  letter  was  no  great  surprise  to  the  council ;  and 
they  resolved,  if  the  Grand  Signior  should  attack  the  isl- 
and, to  answer  him  only  with  their  cannon.  But,  before 
the  enemy  appeared,  and  they  were  obliged  to  enter  upon 
action,  the  Grand-master  ordered  them  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  it,  by  fasting  and  prayer.  He  himself  first  set 
them  the  example,  and  the  moments  which  he  could  spare 
from  the  toils  of  government,  he  spent  in  devotion  before 
the  altar.  Fontanus,  a  contemporary  historian,  and  eye- 
witness of  what  passed  at  the  siege,  in  the  relation  of  it, 
which  he  has  left  us,  observes,  that  the  Knights  and  citi- 
zens of  Rhodes  had  as  much  confidence  in  his  prayers  as 
in  his  valor  ;  and  it  was  a  common  saying,  among  them, 
that,  under  so  pious  a  prince,  Heaven  would  interpose, 
for  the  preservation  of  his  dominions. 

As  the  isle  of  Rhodes  was  inhabited  by  two  different 
nations,  each  of  them  had  their  own  Metropolitan,  both 
in  the  nomination  of  the  Grand-master.  Leonard  Bales- 
tein  then  enjoyed  that  dignity,  with  regard  to  the  Latins, 
and  a  caloyer  or  monk  of  St.  Basil,  called  Clement,  was 
Archbishop  of  the  Greeks.  These  two  prelates  lived  in 
a  perfect  harmony,  and  made  it  their  whole  business  to 
maintain  peace  between  the  people  of  their  dioceses. 
The  Latin  Archbishop  was  a  very  fine  speaker  :  he  was 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  preachers  of  his  age.  How- 
ever, as  the  Turks  always  treated  their  Greek  subjects 
more  favorably  than  the  Latins,  the  Grand-master  wai 


180  GREAT  EVENTS. 

not  without  apprehensions,  that  the  Greek  inhabitants  of 
the  isles  of  the  Order  might  possibly  be  seduced,  by  this 
distinction  in  their  favor  ;  and  therefore  engaged  the  two 
Metropolitans,  in  their  sermons,  to  exhort  their  flocks  to 
fight  courageously  against  the  enemies  of  the  faith. 

Both  the  prelates  acquitted  themselves,  in  this  point, 
with  zeal,  and  succeeded  in  it,  without  difficulty.  The 
fidelity  of  the  Rhodians,  to  the  Order,  was  not  to  be 
shaken  :  not  only  from  the  inviolable  attachment  which 
they  discovered  for  the  true  religion,  but,  likewise,  be- 
cause the  Knights  had  always  governed  with  great  justice 
and  moderation  ;  the  surest  bond  in  Nature,  between  a 
sovereign  and  his  subjects. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Turkish  fleet  set  sail  ;  thirty  gal- 
leys advanced  before  it.  The  commander,  as  he  passed 
along  the  coasts  of  the  isle  of  Lango,  or  Coos,  landed 
some  troops,  to  ravage  it  :  but  these  plunderers  were  so 
vigorously  charged,  upon  their  landing,  by  Prejan  de  Bi- 
doux,  Great  Prior  of  St.  Giles,  Governor  of  the  island, 
that  they  were  forced  to  reembark,  with  some  loss.  This 
commander  being  informed,  by  the  prisoners  which  he 
took,  that  those  galleys,  and  the  main  body  of  the  fleet 
which  followed  them,  were  steering  directly  for  Rhodes, 
sent,  after  they  were  gone  by,  to  ask  the  Grand-master's 
leave,  to  come  to  him,  and  serve  the  Order,  in  the  siege. 
The  Grand-master,  who  knew  his  capacity  and  long  ex 
perience  in  war,  was  equally  affected  with  his  zeal  and 
courage.  He  readily  sent  him  the  orders  that  he  asked  ; 
and  the  brave  Knight,  upon  the  receipt  of  them,  went  on 
board  a  brigantine,  and  in  the  night  time  got  into  the  port 
of  Rhodes,  without  being  discovered  by  the  Turks  that 
lay  off  it,  at  sea.  The  Grand-master  embraced  him  ten- 
derly, commended  him  highly,  and,  not  to  leave  his  tal- 
ents, and  particularly  his  vigilance,  unemployed,  gave  him 
the  commission  of  visiting  the  several  posts  of  the  place, 
and  of  commanding  at  all  the  batteries,  jointly  with  the 
Bailiff  of  Manosque. 

Th'-y  likewise  brought  over,  at  the  same  time,  from 
the  other  isles  of  the  Order,  and  particularly  from  Niz- 
zaro,  the  greatest  part  of  the  inhabitants,  a  brave  set  of 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  181 

men,  used  to  cruise  at  sea,  and  combat  against  the  Infi- 
dels. The  Grand-master  took  this  resolution,  because 
the  only  thing  they  had  to  do,  in  this  war,  was,  to  save 
the  capital ;  and,  if  the  Order  could  but  maintain  its 
ground,  there,  the  other  islands  would  be  either  pre- 
served, or  at  least  more  easily  recovered. 

When  these  inhabitants  were  landed,  they  put  them, 
with  provisions,  into  the  castles  of  Lindo,  Feracle,  and 
the  other  fortresses  of  the  island.  Some  gallant  Knights 
were  likewise  put  into  those  places,  to  command  them. 
Their  orders  were,  if  they  should  be  besieged,  to  hold 
out,  as  long  as  possible,  to  gain  time,  and  put  off  the 
siege  of  the  capital ;  and,  if  the  Infidels  did  not  attack 
them,  to  go  often  out  on  parties,  and  try  to  surprise  the 
stragglers  from  the  main  army. 

The  Turkish  fleet,  after  making  the  coast  of  Lycia, 
appeared,  at  last,  within  sight  of  Rhodes,  and  stopped  in 
a  shallow  water,  about  eight  miles  or  three  leagues  from 
the  city  ;  but,  not  finding  a  good  bottom,  and  the  place 
being,  likewise,  at  that  season,  exposed  to  the  westerly 
winds,  Curtogli  weighed  anchor,  set  sail,  and  went  to 
land  on  the  other  side,  on  a  lee-shore,  where  there  was 
a  good  anchoring  place,  callecMParambolin,  six  miles  from 
the  city.  There  afterwards  came  thither,  from  the  ports 
of  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egjspt,  a  great  number  of  vessels 
and  galleys,  laden  with  troops  and  ammunition  ;  so  that, 
when  the  Turks  had  all  their  forces  together,  they  com- 
puted no  less  than  four  hundred  sail,  in  their  fleet ;  and 
the  land  army  consisted  of  a  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
men,  without  reckoning  sixty  thousand  pioneers,  which 
Soliman  had  drawn  out  of  the  frontiers  of  Hungary,  and 
the  mountains  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Walachia,  where 
most  of  them  had  been  bred  to  digging  under  ground  and 
working  in  mines. 

The  Grand-master,  upon  the  enemies'  approach,  quit- 
ted his  palace,  and  posted  himself  near  the  church  of  St. 
Marie  de  la  Victoire,  to  be  the  more  within  reach  of  suc- 
coring the  posts  that  should  be  attacked.  During  the  first 
thirteen  days,  the  Infidels  made  no  motion,  at  all  ;  only 
their  galleys,  flat-bottomed  vessels,  and  barks,  were  coo- 

16  G.   E. 


182  GREAT   EVENTS, 

tinually  transporting  their  troops  from  the  ports  of  Fischo 
and  Macry  into  the  isle  of  Rhodes,  and  they  worked,  at 
the  same  time,  in  landing  the  heavy  artillery,  provisions, 
and  ammunition.  When  all  was  landed,  they  held  a  coun- 
cil of  war,  about  the  different  operations  of  the  army. 
Some  officers  were  of  opinion,  that  they  should  begin 
with  attacking  the  castle  of  Lindo,  and  the  other  for- 
tresses of  the  island,  which  the  Knights  had  built  to  hinder 
the. making  of  descents  ;  and  they  represented,  that  the 
troops  which  were  in  those  places  might  surprise  and  in- 
terrupt their  convoys,  and  cut  those  troopers  to  pieces, 
that  might  straggle  abroad  for  forage  ;  but  Peri,  or  Pyrr- 
hus,  Basha,  the  son  of  a  renegado  Epirot,  was  against  this 
sentiment,  and  represented,  that  they  should  lose  time, 
which  was  too  precious  to  be  thrown  away,  in  reducing 
these  little  places  ;  that  they  ought  to  advance  directly  to 
the  capital,  the  taking  of  which  would  make  all  those  cas- 
tles fall,  of  course  ;  and,  with  regard  to  the  parties  which 
might  disturb  their  convoys  and  foragers,  they  might  easily 
secure  themselves  from  any  apprehensions  of  that  nature, 
by  sending  such  strong  escorts,  that  the  Christians  durst 
not  attack  them. 

The  General  declared  himself  for  this  latter  opinion, 
and  Rhodes  was  invested.  They  began  to  open  the 
trenches,  out  of  the  reach  of  cannon  shot  ;  and,  when 
they  were  nearer  the  town,  the  Infidels  raised  a  battery, 
which  was  immediately  dismounted  by  the  artillery  of  the 
place.  Nothing  could  appear  in  the  plain,  but  it  was  im- 
mediately battered,  and  felt  the  fury  of  the  cannon  ;  and 
the  Knights,  making  frequent  sallies,  killed  a  great  number 
of  the  Turks,  cleared  the  trenches,  and  filled  up  their  first 
works.  The  Turks  began  them,  again,  and  raised  new 
batteries  ;  but,  notwithstanding  their  being  covered  with 
sheds,  gabions,  and  shoulder  works,  nevertheless,  the 
Knights,  with  their  continual  fire,  ruined  all  their  works, 
and  destroyed  such  as  managed  the  artillery  of  the  Infi- 
dels. The  sword  made  a  great  havoc  of  what  the  can- 
non had  spared.  There  was,  every  day,  some  skirmish 
or  other,  and  no  sallies  were  made,  but  all  the  Turks  in 
the  trenches  were  cut  to  pieces. 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  183 

The  Turkish  soldiers,  who  were  used  to  make  prog- 
nostics from  the  first  skirmishes,  presaged  no  good  to 
themselves,  with  regard  to  the  success  of  the  siege.  The 
Janizaries,  and  even  their  very  officers,  found  the  valor 
of  the  Knights  so  much  superior  to  the  great  character 
that  had  been  given  them  of  it,  that  they  complained  of 
being  led  to  the  slaughter.  Besides,  through  the  Grand- 
master's wise  precaution,  the  island  was  a  kind  of  desert ; 
no  inhabitants,  no  provisions,  nor  forage  ;  neither  could 
the  soldiers  straggle  abroad,  in  quest  of  any,  but  they 
were  presently  snapped  up,  by  parties  that  sallied  out 
of  the  castles  of  the  island  ;  and  these  parties,  that  were 
always  lying  in  one  ambuscade  or  other,  killed  all  that  fell 
into  their  hands,  without  giving  quarter.  A  war  so  toil- 
some and  bloody  ;  the  extraordinary  fortifications  of 
Rhodes  ;  the  continual  fire  of  the  artillery  ;  the  frequent 
sallies  ;  the  scarcity  of  provisions,  (of  which  they  were 
forced  to  be  very  careful,  because  they  could  get  none 
but  from  beyond  sea  ;)  the  little,  or  rather  no  hopes  of 
booty,  and  yet  less,  of  recompense  ;  in  the  absence  of 
their  Sovereign,  their  small  confidence  in  a  young  gener- 
al, who  had  been  brought  up  in  the  pleasures  of  the  se- 
raglio ; — all  this  contributed  to  the  distaste,  and  even  the 
murmurings,  of  the  officer  as  well  as  the  soldier.  A  spirit 
of  mutiny,  under  a  general  that  had  not  credit  enough  with 
them,  soon  succeeded  to  these  murmurs  ;  and,  if  an  at- 
tack was  to  be  made,  or  a  sally  to  be  repulsed,  the  troops 
could  not  be  brought  to  advance,  but  with  reluctance,  and 
like  men  who  did  not  believe  they  could  vanquish  or  help 
being  vanquished.  In  fine,  the  fear  of  danger  made  obe- 
dience languish,  and  all  respect  for  command  was  lost. 

Peri  Basha,  to  whom  Soliman  had  given  particular  or- 
ders, to  send  him  an  exact  account  of  every  thing  that 
passed  at  the  siege,  thought  himself  obliged  to  let  him 
know  the  discouragement  and  despondency  of  his  army  : 
and  he  observed,  in  his  letter,  that  nothing  but  his  pres- 
ence could  root  out  the  seeds  of  rebellion,  and  reanimate 
the  courage  of  his  soldiers.  The  bashas  that  were  left 
about  the  Sultan,  and  composed  his  council,  were  against 
his  committing  himself  to  the  hazards  of  the  sea  ;  but  the 


184  GREAT   EVENTS. 

Prince,  jealous  of  his  glory,  and  having  the  example  of  his 
father,  Selim,  and  the  sultans,  his  ancestors,  before  his 
eyes  ;  and  being  likewise  persuaded,  that  the  mere  pres- 
ence of  a  sovereign  surmounts  the  greatest  difficulties,  re- 
solved to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army,  and  accord- 
ingly set  out  for  Lycia,  with  a  body  of  fifteen  thousand 
men. 

Whilst  this  Prince  was  on  his  march,  a  Turkish  wo- 
man, who  was  slave  to  a  townsman  of  Rhodes,  either 
from  a  zeal  for  her  false  religion,  or  in  hopes  of  recov- 
ering her  liberty,  formed  an  enterprise  that  a  hundred 
thousand  Turks  could  not  bring  about.  As  the  Knights 
and  the  Infidels  were  fighting  together,  every  day,  she,  in 
order  to  make  a  diversion  that  might  facilitate  the  attacks 
of  the  Turks,  resolved  to  set  fire  to  the  principal  places 
of  the  city  ;  but,  as  it  was  impossible  for  her  to  execute 
this  project,  alone,  she  communicated  it  to  some  other 
slaves  of  her  own  country  and  religion.  These  slaves, 
influenced  by  the  same  motives,  and  by  her  persuasion, 
entered  into  the  plot.  The  woman  found  a  way  to  give 
the  Turkish  generals  notice  of  her  design  ;  and,  in  con- 
cert with  them,  she,  with  the  conspirators,  fixed  a  day 
for  this  conflagration,  and  the  quarter  wherein  they  were 
to  light  it.  These  measures  were  so  well  taken,  that 
Rhodes  must  have  fallen,  by  the  enterprise  of  this  wo- 
man, had  not  one  of  the  slaves  providentially  dropped 
a  word,  that  discovered  the  secret  of  the  conspiracy. 
They  were  immediately  seized,  and  all  of  them,  when 
put  to  the  rack,  owned  their  plot.  The  woman  was  the 
only  person  that  did  not  submit  to  the  force  of  pain,  but 
endured  the  most  violent  tortures,  without  making  the 
least  confession.  But  her  accomplices  being  confront- 
ed with  her,  and  maintaining  that  she  was  the  only  per- 
son that  engaged  them  in  this  conspiracy,  the  judges  or- 
dered her  to  be  hanged.  They  quartered  all  the  other 
conspirators,  and  their  limbs  were  fixed  up  in  several 
plar.c.s  of  the  city,  in  order  to  intimidate  the  rest  of  the 
slaves,  and  all  that  might  afterwards  be  tempted  to  form 
a  like  enterprise. 

The  Sultan,  in  the  mean  time,  passing  through  Cana 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  185 

and  Lycia.  arrived  at  Portofischo.  His  vessels  came 
thither,  to  take  him  on  board,  with  the  troops  that  serv- 
ed for  his  escort  ;  and  he  came  into  the  isle  of  Rhodes 
to  his  camp,  where  he  was  received  with  salvos  of  artil- 
lery, and  the  sound  of  drums,  trumpets,  and  other  war- 
like instruments.  His  presence  put  a  stop  to  the  mur- 
murs of  the  soldiery,  and  made  them  dread  a  chastise- 
ment. He  declared,  that  the  only  design  of  his  coming 
was,  to  punish  a  rebellious  army,  and  decimate  and  put 
to  death  every  tenth  soldier  ;  calling  them  cowards,  at 
the  same  time.  But  Peri  Basha,  who  had  a  great  influ- 
ence over  him,  represented  to  him,  that  the  Janizaries, 
and  even  the  bravest  of  that  body  of  troops,  were  the 
very  men  that  had  appeared  most  mutinous  ;  that  he 
could  not  punish  them,  without  discouraging  the  rest  ; 
and  that,  therefore,  in  a  siege  of  such  difficulty  and  im- 
portance, it  were  better  to  overlook  their  fault,  or  else  to 
make  them  sensible  of  it,  by  such  reproaches  as  should 
reinspire  them  with  their  wonted  bravery. 

This  Prince,  after  having  concerted  with  his  minister 
what  behavior  he  should  put  on,  with  regard  to  his  troops, 
ordered  them  to  appear  before  him,  without  their  arms, 
and  caused  them  to  be  surrounded  by  the  fifteen  thousand 
men  that  he  had  brought  with  him  to  the  siege.  They 
had  erected  a  high  and  magnificent  throne  for  him.  The 
Prince,  armed  with  majesty,  ascended  it,  with  a  fierce  and 
stately  air,  and  sat  there,  for  some  time,  without  once 
opening  his  lips,  casting  dreadful  looks,  on  every  side, 
which  trie  trembling  soldiers  considered  as  the  forerun- 
ners of  death.  At  last,  breaking  this  dismal  silence, 
"  Was  I,"  says  he,  "  to  have  addressed  myself  to  sol- 
diers, I  would  have  allowed  you  to  appear  before  me 
with  your  arms  ;  but,  since  I  am  forced  to  direct  my 
discourse  to  wretched  slaves,  weaker  and  more  faint- 
hearted than  women,  and  who  cannot  stand  the  bare 
shout  of  their  enemies,  it  is  not  fitting  that  such  cow- 
ards should  dishonor  our  arms,  and  the  characteristics 
of  valor.  I  would  gladly  know,  if,  whether  upon  land- 
ing in  this  island,  you  flattered  yourselves  that  the  Knights 
would  prove  greater  cowards  than  yourselves,  and,  in  a 
16* 


186  GREAT  EVENTS 

dread  of  your  arms,  should  bring  you  their  own,  and 
come,  in  a  servile  manner,  to  offer  their  hands  and  feet 
to  the  irons,  with  which  you  should  be  pleased  to  load 
them.  In  order  to  undeceive  and  cure  you  of  such  a 
ridiculous  mistake,  know,  that,  in  the  person  of  these 
Knights,  we  are  to  fight  with  the  flower  of  the  Christian 
world,  with  brave  men,  trained  up,  from  their  infancy,  in 
the  profession  of  arms  ;  we  are  to  fight  with  cruel  and 
fierce  lions,  greedy  of  the  blood  of  Mussulmen,  and  who 
will  not  quit  their  haunt,  but  to  a  superior  force.  It  is 
their  courage  which  has  excited  our  own.  I  imagined 
that,  in  attacking  them,  I  should  meet  with  an  enterprise 
and  dangers,  that  were  worthy  of  my  valor.  And  is  it 
from  you,  base  and  effeminate  soldiers,  that  I  am  to  ex- 
pect a  conquest  ?  you,  that  are  flying  from  the  enemy  be- 
fore you  have  looked  him  in  the  face,  and  would  have  de- 
serted, had  it  not  been  for  the  sea  that  encompasses  you  ? 
But,  before  such  a  disgrace  shall  happen  to  me,  I  am  re- 
solved to  exercise  such  exemplary  justice  on  the  cowards, 
that  the  severity  of  their  punishment  shall  keep  such  in 
their  duty  as  might  be  tempted  to  imitate  them." 

Scarce  had  the  Sultan  ended  these  words,  when,  upon 
a  signal  given  to  the  armed  soldiers  that  surrounded  the 
others,  they  drew  their  swords,  as  if  they  were  going  to 
massacre  their  comrades.  Those  wretches,  at  the  sight 
of  the  drawn  swords,  whose  points  were  turned  against 
them,  fell  upon  their  knees,  and  cried  aloud  to  the  Sul- 
tan, for  mercy.  Then  Peri  and  the  other  generals,  in 
concert  with  the  Prince,  drew  near  his  throne, 'with  the 
most  profound  reverence,  and  besought  him,  in  the  most 
submissive  expressions,  to  pardon  those  soldiers,  who,  as 
Peri  said,  had  behaved  manfully,  oh  other  occasions,  but 
who,  in  this,  had  been  unhappily  misled  by  an  evil  genius 
and  a  panic  terror.  The  Basha  added,  that  they  were 
ready  to  wash  out  their  faults  with  their  blood,  and  his 
head  should  answer  to  his  highness,  for  their  hearty  sor- 
row and  repentance.  Though  Soliman's  design  was  only 
to  reclaim  his  troops,  and  bring  them  back  to  their  duty, 
yet,  in  order  to  keep  up,  before  them,  the  character  of 
an  incensed  prince,  and  engage  the  soldiers  to  blot  out 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF   RHODES.  187 

the  remembrance  of  their  cowardice,  by  some  daring 
action  of  extraordinary  valor,  UI  suspend,"  says  he,  to 
Peri,  "  at  your  request,  the  punishment  of  the  guilty  : 
but  let  them  go  seek  their  pardon  in  the  bastions  and 
upon  the  bulwarks  of  our  enemies."  With  these  words, 
he  dismissed  the  assembly. 

This  Prince's  discourse,  so  seasonably  mixed  with  se- 
verity and  clemency,  inspired  the  troops  with  their  wont- 
ed boldness  and  ancient  valor.  The  officers,  especially, 
to  wipe  off  the  ill  opinion  the  Sultan  had  entertained  of 
their  courage,  demanded  eagerly  to  be  placed  in  the  most 
dangerous  posts.  Those  very  persons,  who,  before  Sol- 
iman's  arrival,  had  blamed  this  enterprise,  now  found  il 
easy  and  glorious.  One  would  not  have  taken  them  for 
the  same  men  :  they  were  all  on  fire,  to  signalize  their 
courage  ;  and,  to  speak  properly,  it  is  only  from  this  day 
that  we  are  to  date  the  commencement  of  the  siege. 

The  soldiers  .and  pioneers  carried  on  the  trenches, 
without  intermission.  They  worked  at  them  in  the  day- 
time, as  well  as  in  the  night ;  and  they  were  relieved,  in 
their  turns,  by  various  detachments  of  troops,  that  suc- 
ceeded one  another.  The  Grand-master,  seeing  them 
sustained  by  strong  brigades,  did  not  think  fit  to  continue 
his  sallies,  in  which  the  loss  of  one  single  Knight  was  of 
greater  consequence  to  him  than  fifty  soldiers  to  Soli- 
man  ;  so  that  the  Infidels,  having  nothing  to  fear  but  the 
fire  of  the  place,  labored,  with  so  much  vigor,  that  they 
carried  on  their  works,  as  far  as  the  counterscarp  :  and, 
in  order  to  make  their  lines  the  stronger,  they  faced  them, 
on  the  outside,  with  beams  of  timber  and  planks  tied  to- 
gether. They  next  augmented  their  batteries  ;  from 
which  they,  for  several  days  together,  continually  fired 
upon  the  city.  The  Turks  flattered  themselves,  that 
they  should  ruin  the  fortifications,  in  a  little  time  ;  but 
had  notice  sent  them,  by  a  Jew,  who  served  them  as  a 
spy,  in  Rhodes,  that  their  cannon  had  scarce  so  much 
as  grazed  upon  the  battlements  of  the  wall,  whether  their 
batteries  were  ill  placed,  or  the  cannon  not  well  pointed. 
He  added,  that  the  Knights,  from  the  top  of  St.  John's 
steeple,  saw  every  thing  that  passed  in  their  camp,  and 


188  GREAT  EVENTS. 

the  parts  adjacent ;  and  that,  if  the  Christians  should 
happen  to  plant  some  piece  of  artillery  on  the  top  of 
that  steeple,  they  might  either  kill  the  Sultan,  as  he  was 
visiting  the  works,  or  such  as  carried  his  orders.  These 
advices  determined  the  besiegers  to  change  the  situation 
of  their  batteries :  they  pointed  one,  among  the  rest, 
against  St.  John's  steeple,  which  was  demolished  by  the 
first  cannon-shot  that  they  fired. 

These  barbarians,  finding  Rhodes  covered  and  buried, 
as  it  were,  under  its  fortifications,  resolved  to  raise  two 
cavaliers,*  that  should  be  higher  than  those  works,  and 
command  the  city  and  bulwarks.  The  soldiers  and  pi- 
oneers, by  the  General's  orders,  brought  earth  and  stones, 
for  several  days  together,  which  they  placed  between  the 
posts  of  Spain  and  Auvergne,  over  against  the  bastion 
of  Italy.  As  these  two  places  lay  open,  and  exposed  to 
the  cannon  of  the  place,  it  would  be  impossible  to  express 
what  a  prodigious  number  of  Turkish  .soldiers  and  pio- 
neers perished  in  this  work  :  but  Mustapha,  in  order  to 
advance  it,  made  no  scruple  of  throwing  away  the  lives 
of  these  poor  wretches.  The  work,  at  last,  appeared 
like  two  little  hills,  which  were  ten  or  twelve  feet  higher 
than  the  wall,  and  absolutely  commanded  it. 

The  General,  and  the  other  bashas,  then  made  a  distri- 
bution of  the  several  attacks.  Mustapha  took  upon  him- 
self that  of  the  bulwark  of  England  ;  Peri,  that  of  the  post 
of  Italy  ;  Achmet  Basha,  a  great  engineer,  undertook  the 
attack  of  the  bastions  of  Spain  and  Auvergne  ;  but,  as 
they  seemed  to  be  defended  by  a  numerous  artillery,  and 
a  great  number  of  Knights,  the  Sultan  would  have  this 
last  basha  sustained  by  the  Aga  of  the  Janizaries.  The 
Begler-bei  of  Anatolia  commanded  in  the  trenches,  oppo- 
site to  the  post  of  Provence,  and  the  Begler-bei  of  Roma- 
nia was  to  attack  the  tower  of  St.  Nicholas.  All  these 
generals  caused  a  continual  fire  to  be  made. 

The  post  of  Germany  was  the  first  attacked.     The 

planted  several  batteries  against  the  wall.      They 

did  not  think  it  could  long  resist  the  violence  of  the  can- 

*  Mounts  or  elevations  of  earth,  to  lodge  cannon. 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  189 

non,  because  it  had  no  platform  of  earth  ;  but  the  Grand- 
master repaired  thither  immediately,  himself ;  and  caused 
it  to  be  supported  on  the  inside,  by  earth,  beams  of 
timber,  and  fascines  :  and,  as  the  artillery,  which  was 
placed  on  the  gate  of  his  palace,  in  a  place  of  great 
height,  looked  over  and  commanded  the  batteries  of  the 
Infidels,  the  Christian  cannoniers  demolished  them,  and 
broke  to  pieces  their  gabions,  sheds,  and  parapets.  The 
only  remedy  was,  to  make  new  ones,  which,  however, 
did  not  last  longer  than  the  first  ;  the  cannon  of  the  town 
did  sure  execution,  and  beat  down  all  at  which  it  was 
levelled,  whereas  that  of  the  Infidels,  on  the  contrary, 
being  ill  managed,  and  pointed  against  a  place  of  such 
height,  and  always  keeping  the  same  line  and  point  of 
elevation,  passed  above  the  wall,  and  shot  at  random. 
We  may  suppose  that  their  gunners  were,  as  yet,  wholly 
ignorant  of  the  method  of  lowering  their  cannon,  and 
making  it  bear  downwards,  and  against  the  foot  of  the 
wall. 

The  Basha,  discouraged  at  the  little  service  his  batter- 
ies had  performed,  removed,  and  planted  them  against 
the  tower  of  St.  Nicholas.  We  have  before  observed, 
during  the  mastership  of  the  Grand-master,  d'Aubusson, 
the  ill  success  of  the  attacks  of  the  Basha  Palseologus  ; 
nor  was  that  of  the  Begler-bei  of  Romania  more  success- 
ful. The  Basha  battered  the  tower,  with  twelve  great 
brass  guns,  but  had  the  mortification  to  see  his  cannon 
dismounted,  and  his  batteries  ruined,  by  those  of  the 
tower.  To  prevent  this  effect,  which  was  owing  to  the 
skill  of  the  Christian  gunners,  he  resolved  to  fire  only  by 
night,  and  buried  his  cannon  and  gabions  in  the  sand,  all 
the  daytime.  But,  as  soon  as  night  came,  they  planted 
them,  again,  on  the  platform  ;  and,  above  five  hundred 
cannon  shot  striking  on  the  part  of  the  wall  that  looked 
towards  the  west,  it  was  shaken  down  into  the  ditch. 

The  Basha  was  in  high  delight,  at  the  effect  of  his 
nightly  battery,  and  fed  himself  with  vain  hopes  of  carry- 
ing that  work,  at  the  first  assault  ;  but  he  was  strangely 
surprised  to  see  a  new  wall  appear,  behind  the  ruins  of 
the  first,  strengthened  with  a  rampart  and  parapet,  and 


190  GREAT   EVENTS. 

lined  with  artillery  to  keep  off  all  approaches  to  it.  He 
was  now  forced  to  take  a  resolution  of  beginning  anew  tc 
batter  this  second  wall. 

Soliman,  being  advertised  of  this,  sent  to  recormoiter 
it.  They  gave  him  an  account,  that  this  tower  was  the 
strongest  part  of  the  place,  not  only  by  its  situation  on  a 
rock,  which  was  proof  against  the  sap,  and  could  have 
no  mine  cut  in  it,  but  likewise  by  the  different  works  ad- 
ded to  it,  since  the  last  siege  :  and  that,  under  the  reign 
of  Mohammed  the  Second,  his  grandfather,  the  Basha 
Palaeologus  had  been  obliged  to  give  over  this  attack. 
These  considerations  determined  the  Sultan  to  remove 
his  batteries  to  another  place.  Mustapha,  by  his  orders, 
directed  his  attack  against  the  principal  bastions  of  the 
place  ;  a  prodigious  train  of  artillery  battered  them,  night 
and  day,  for  a  month  together.  The  Chevalier  de  Bar- 
baran,  who  commanded  at  that  of  Spain,  was  killed  by  a 
cannon-ball.  He  was  succeeded  in  his  command,  by  the 
Chevalier  John  d'Omedes,  (afterwards  Grand-master,) 
of  the  Language  of  Aragon,  who,  in  defending  that  post, 
lost  an  eye,  a  few  days  after,  by  a  musket-ball.  The 
Turks  battered  all  these  bastions,  at  the  same  time  ;  that 
of  England  was  greatly  damaged.  A  new  wall,  which 
they  had  made  there,  was  entirely  ruined,  by  the  cannon 
of  the  Infidels  ;  but  the  old  one  stood  firm,  against  all 
the  fury  of  the  artillery.  The  Grand-master  ran  thither  ; 
and,  finding  the  Turks  obstinately  bent  upon  that  attack, 
he  lodged  himself  at  the  foot  of  the  wall,  and,  for  fear  of 
an  assault,  caused  a  reenforcement  of  fifty  Knights  to  en- 
tor  into  the  bastion. 

That  of  Italy  was  in  a  still  worse  condition.  Seven- 
teen pieces  of  cannon,  firing  on  it,  day  and  night,  had 
almost  demolished  the  whole  wall.  The  Grand-master, 
by  Martinengo's  advice,  in  order  to  get  time  to  make  cuts 
and  intrenchments  behind  the  breach,  before  the  Infidels 
ronld  mount  to  the  assault,  ordered  two  hundred  mm  m 
sally  out,  under  the  command  of  a  serving  brother,  called 
Baflbofcxnepr,  mid  Benedict  Sr;irnnose,  an  engineer, 
who  had  been  brought  up  under  Martinengo.  TheJ 
threw  themselves  into  the  trenches,  sword  in  hand,  sur- 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  19 

prised  the  Turks,  killed  or  put  to  flight  all  that  they  met, 
and,  before  they  made  their  retreat,  filled  up  a  great 
many  yards  of  the  trenches.  The  Turks  did  not  fail,  a? 
that  expert  engineer  had  foreseen,  to  hasten  to  drive  them 
back  :  but,  as  they  were  forced  to  pass  by  a  place  that 
lay  open  and  exposed,  the  artillery,  which  they  had 
pointed  on  that  side,  killed  a  great  number  of  them,  and, 
by  the  help  of  a  continual  fire,  the  Christians,  who  had 
made  the  sally,  got  back  into  the  city,  without  any  con- 
siderable loss. 

While  this  skirmish  lasted,  part  of  the  Knights  were 
busy  in  digging  ditches,  and  making  crosscuts  and  in- 
trenchments,  to  hinder  the  enemy  from  making  a  lodge- 
ment upon  the  breach  ;  while  others  of  them,  with  mus- 
ket-shot, killed  all  that  durst  advance  near  it.  The  can- 
non of  the  place  played  upon  and  reached  such  as  were 
at  a  greater  distance  ;  and  nothing  appeared,  but  it  was 
struck  down,  immediately.  Most  of  the  batteries  of  the 
Infidels  were  ruined  ;  their  gabions  and  sheds  were  beat 
to  pieces  ;  and  their  shoulder  works  could  not  save  those, 
who  were  employed  about  the  artillery,  from  being  taken 
off  by  that  of  the  town. 

A  renegado,  Soliman's  general  of  the  ordnance,  a 
man  well  skilled  in  his  profession,  had  both  his  legs  car- 
ried off,  by  a  cannon-shot,  which  also  killed  five  men, 
with  the  splinters  of  the  planks  that  it  broke  to  pieces. 
The  Turks,  without  being  disheartened,  repaired  their 
batteries,  and  kept  firing,  continually  ;  and  they  had  so 
great  a  number  of  cannon,  and  such  a  quantity  of  powder, 
that  they  often  demolished,  in  an  hour's  time,  what  the 
Christians  could  hardly  repair,  in  several  days.  The 
Knights  began  even  to  want  powder,  already.  D'Am- 
maral,  one  of  the  commissioners  appointed  before  the 
siege,  to  visit  the  magazines,  had,  in  order  to  favor  the 
Turks,  and  disable  the  Knights  from  continuing  their  de- 
fence, made  a  false  report  to  the  council,  and  declared 
that  he  had  found  more  powder  in  the  place  than  would 
serve  to  sustain  the  siege,  even  though  it  should  last  a 
whole  year.  But  it  was  not  long,  before  they  found 
to  the  contrary.  The  powder  they  had  was  diminished, 


192  GREAT  EVENTS. 

so  considerably,  that  they  would  soon  have  had  none  left, 
had  it  not  been  for  the  Grand-master's  having  made  pro- 
vision of  saltpetre,  and  set  all  the  horses  of  iiis  stable  to 
work,  to  beat  it  small,  by  help  of  the  mills  that  were  in 
the  place  :  the"  Bailiff  de  Manosque  and  the  Chevalier 
Parisot  were  appointed  to  superintend  over  this  affair. 
However,  as  they  had  not  so  much  saltpetre  as  they 
would  have  occasion  for,  the  officers  of  the  artillery  were 
obliged  to  fire  less  frequently,  to  husband  their  powder, 
and  reserve  it  for  the  assaults,  which  they  foresaw  the 
Turks  would  make  on  the  place,  whenever  the  breaches 
should  be  made  larger. 

This  misfortune,  owing,  as  it  is  pretended,  to  the  treach- 
ery of  the  Portuguese  Knight,  was  attended  by  another, 
occasioned  by  some  young  Knights,  while  the  Turks  were 
giving  a  false  alarm  to  the  post  of  Auvergne.  The  guards 
were  bringing  from  work  a  company  of  slaves,  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty,  in  number,  who  were  ordinarily  em- 
ployed in  digging  the  ground,  or  in  drawing  stones  and 
beams,  to  make  intrenchments.  These  young  Knights, 
meeting  them,  struck  some  of  them,  for  diversion's  sake, 
just  as  a  body  of  old  Knights  were  passing  by,  who  were 
marching,  in  haste,  to  the  post  of  Auvergne,  upon  the 
signals  made,  on  occasion  of  the  false  alarm  that  was  giv- 
en by  the  Turks.  They,  seeing  it,  immediately  imagin- 
ed that  those  slaves,  from  an  impatient  desire  of  liberty, 
were  risen,  and  that  the  young  Knights  attacked  them,  in 
earnest.  Possessed  with  this  notion,  they  fell  upon  those 
poor  wretches,  sword  in  hand,  and  cut  them  to  pieces  : 
by  this  unhappy  mistake,  killing  a  company  of  innocent 
men,  and  depriving  themselves  of  the  assistance  they  re- 
ceived from  these  slaves,  who  would  have  served  to  sup- 
ply the  places  of  the  Christian  pioneers,  who  fell  daily, 
in  great  numbers,  either  by  the  enemy's  cannon,  or  by 
musket-shot  fired  out  of  fusees,  of  a  large  bore,  which 
carried  as  far  as  the  breaches,  and  into  the  very  city. 

Tim  Turkish  general,  discovering  that  these  peasants, 
without  minding  how  they  exposed  their  lives,  were,  by 
Martinengo's  directions,  making  barricadoes,  cuts,  and 
intrenchments,  along  the  breaches,  had  chosen  out  of  his 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  193 

army  a  good  number  of  fowlers,  that  were  excellent 
marksmen.  He  had  placed  them  upon  eminences,  that 
were  nearest  the  place,  and  upon  cavaliers,  that  com- 
manded it,  whence  they  fetched  down,  with  their  harque- 
busses,  all  that  appeared  upon  the  ramparts.  Martinen- 
go,  seeing  his  workmen  killed,  without  his  being  able  to 
secure  them  from  the  enemy's  fire,  made  them,  by  way 
of  a  counter-battery,  plant  some  small  field-pieces  on  the 
roofs  of  the  highest  houses.  These,  on  their  part,  killed 
abundance  of  the  fowlers  ;  but  the  killing  or  disabling  ten 
of  those  workmen,  did  not  make  the  Order  amends  for 
the  death  of  one  Christian  soldier  or  pioneer.  The  town, 
being  reduced  to  a  small  number  of  defendants,  could  not 
lose  one  of  them,  without  drawing  nearer  its  ruin  ;  and 
the  Grand-master,  in  order  to  protract  it,  had  no  resource, 
but  either  in  a  speedy  succor,  or  by  prolonging  the  siege, 
and  holding  out,  till  the  coming  of  Winter  and  bad  weath- 
er, when  he  imagined  the  Turkish  fleet  would  not  be  able 
to  keep  the  sea. 

The  war  had  hitherto  been  carried  on,  between  the 
besiegers  and  the  besieged,  by  firing  at  one  another  ;  and, 
though  that  of  the  Turks,  by  reason  of  the  multitude  of 
their  cannon  and  the  great  quantity  of  their  powder,  was 
vastly  superior,  yet  they  were  not  masters  of  one  inch  of 
ground  in  the  bastions  and  advanced  works  of  the  place. 
The  barricadoes  and  intrenchments  served  instead  of  the 
walls  that  were  beaten  down.  There  was  no  carrying 
these  new  works,  but  by  an  assault  ;  and,  in  order  to 
make  it,  it  was  necessary  to  try  the  descent  of  the  ditch, 
or  fill  it  up.  Soliman,  who  had  a  prodigious  number  of 
pioneers  in  his  army,  made  various  detachments  of  them, 
some  to  throw  earth  and  stones  into  the  ditch  ;  but  the 
Knights,  by  help  of  their  casemates,  carried  off,  by  night, 
what  they  had  thrown  in,  by  day.  Other  pioneers  were 
employed  in  digging  mines,  in  five  different  places,  in 
each  of  which  they  were  carried  on,  towards  the  bastion 
over  against  it.  Some  of  them  were  countermined  by  the 
vigilance  of  Martinengo,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the 
invention  of  discovering  the  place  where  they  were  carry- 
ing on,  by  drums  and  skins  hard  braced  and  stretched. 

17  0.  E. 


194  GREAT   EVENTS. 

The  Turks  had  worked  with  so  much  skill,  that  the 
several  branches  of  these  mines  had  a  communication 
with  one  another  ;  and  all  of  them,  in  order  to  do  the 
greater  execution,  centred  at  last  in  one  place.  Marti- 
nengo  discovered  one,  in  the  middle  of  the  ditch  of  Prov- 
ence, that  began  at  St.  John's  church.  De  la  Fountaine, 
an  engineer,  had  it  broke  open,  immediately,  drove  the 
miners  out  of  it  with  grenadoes,  and  threw  in  barrels  of 
powder,  which  burnt  and  smothered  the  Turks  that  were 
in  those  subterraneous  passages.  But,  whatever  pains  he 
took,  he  could  not  prevent  the  Infidels  from  springing 
two  mines,  one  after  another,  under  the  bastion  of  Eng- 
land, the  force  of  which  was  so  violent,  that  they  blew 
up  twelve  yards  of  the  wall,  and  the  ruins  of  it  filled  up 
the  ditch. 

The  breach  appeared  so  large,  and  so  easy  to  mount, 
that  several  battalions  of  the  Infidels,  who  waited  the  suc- 
cess of  the  mine,  ran  immediately  to  the  assault,  with 
great  shouts,  and  sabre  in  hand.  They  mounted  in  a 
moment,  to  the  top  of  the  bastion,  and  planted  seven  en- 
signs upon  it,  and  would  have  made  themselves  masters 
of  it,  had  they  not  met  a  crosscut,  or  intrenchment,  be- 
hind it,  that  stopped  them.  The  Knights,  recovering 
from  the  confusion  into  which  the  terrible  noise  of  the 
mine  had  thrown  them,  ran  to  the  bastion,  and  charged 
the  Turks  with  musket-shot,  grenadoes,  and  stones. 
The  Grand-master  was,  at  the  very  time  that  the  mine 
sprung,  in  a  church,  not  far  off,  where  he  was  before  the 
altar,  imploring  from  Heaven  the  succor  which  the  prin- 
ces of  the  earth  refused  him.  He  judged,  by  the  dread- 
ful crash  he  heard,  that  the  noise,  which  the  mine  made, 
would  be  soon  followed  with  an  assault.  He  rose  up, 
immediately,  and  it  happened  to  be  at  that  very  instant 
when  the  priests  of  the  church  were  beginning  Divine  ser- 
vice, and  were  chanting  this  preliminary  prayer,  Deus  in 
adjutorium  meum  intende,  ("  O  God  !  make  haste  to 
deliver  me.")  "  I  accept  the  omen,"  cried  the  pious 
Grand-master  ;  and,  turning  about  to  some  old  Knights, 
that  were  with  him,  "  Let  us  go,  my  brethren,"  says  he 
to  them,  "  to  change  the  sacrifice  of  our  praises  into  that 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  195 

of  our  lives,  and  die,  if  it  must  be  so,  for  the  defence  of 
our  holy  law." 

He  advances,  immediately,  with  his  half-pike  in  his 
hand,  mounts  upon  the  bastion,  comes  up  to  the  Turks, 
breaks,  overturns,  and  kills,  all  that  dare  oppose  him  :  he 
pulls  down  the  enemy's  ensigns,  and  recovers  the  bastion, 
with  an  irresistible  impetuosity.  General  Mustapha,  who 
saw,  from  the  trenches,  the  consternation  and  flight  of 
his  soldiers,  sallies  out  of  them,  sabre  in  hand,  kills  the 
first  of  the  fugitives  that  he  meets,  and  shows  the  rest, 
that  they  would  find  less  safety  near  their  General,  than 
they  would  upon  the  breach.  He  advances  on,  boldly, 
himself ;  his  reproaches,  and  the  shame  of  deserving  them, 
make  the  runaways  rally  about  him  ;  the  engagement  be- 
gins afresh  ;  the  dispute  grows  bloody  ;  fire  and  sword 
are  equally  employed,  on  both  sides  ;  they  kill  one  an- 
other, both  at  a  distance  and  near,  with  musket-shot  and 
the  sword  ;  they  grapple  with  one  another,  and  the 
strongest  or  the  most  dexterous  despatches  his  enemy 
with  a  stroke  of  his  poinard.  The  Turks,  lying  exposed 
to  musket-shot,  stones,  grenadoes,  and  fire-pots,  at  length 
abandon  the  breach,  and  turn  their  backs.  In  vain  does 
their  General  strive,  by  threats  and  promises,  to  bring 
them  back  to  the  charge.  They  all  break,  and  take  to 
their  heels  ;  but,  in  their  flight,  find  a  death  they  were 
afraid  of  meeting,  in  the  action  ;  and  they  made  such  a 
continual  fire  of  the  artillery,  from  different  parts  of  the 
town,  upon  the  foot  of  the  breach,  that  they  pretend  that 
the  Turks  lost,  on  this  occasion,  three  thousand  men  and 
three  sanjaks,*  or  governors  of  places. 

The  Order  lost,  by  this  great  advantage,  the  great 
master  of  the  artillery,  the  Chevalier  d'Argillemont,  cap- 
tain or  general  of  the  galleys,  the  Chevalier  de  Mauselle, 
who  carried  the  Grand-master's  standard,  and  several 
other  Knights,  who  were  killed,  in  fighting  valiantly. 

Scarce  a  day  passed,  but  was  signalized  by  some  new 

attack.       Every  general   officer,   to   please  the   Grand 

Signior,  endeavored,  at  the  expense  of  the  soldiers'  lives, 

to  push  on  the   works,  committed  to  his   care.     Per" 

*  See  note  on  p.  129. 


196  GREAT   EVENTS. 

Basha,  an  old  captain,  notwithstanding  his  advanced  age^ 
distinguished  himself,  by  continual  enterprises.  He  was 
posted  against  the  bastion  of  Italy,  and  never  gave  the 
besieged  a  moment's  repose,  either  day  or  night.  The 
hopes  he  had,  of  carrying  that  work,  made  him  plant  a 
good  body  of  infantry,  so  as  to  be  concealed  behind  a 
cavalier,  which  they  had  raised  on  the  ditch-side  ;  and, 
on  the  thirteenth  of  September,  at  daybreak,  when  the 
besieged,  quite  spent  with  fatigue  and  continual  watching, 
were  overtaken  with  sleep,  he  ordered  his  troops  to  make 
the  assault.  They  first  despatched  the  sentinels,  passed 
the  breach,  and  were  ready  to  seize  the  intrenchments  ; 
when  the  Italians,  amazed  to  see  the  enemy  so  near  them, 
rushed  with  fury  upon  the  Infidels,  who  opposed  them 
with  as  much  courage  and  resolution. 

The  fight  was  maintained,  by  the  valor  of  both,  for  a 
long  time.  The  Basha  stood  exposed  by  the  ditch-side, 
whence  he  sent  them,  continually,  new  reenforcements  : 
but,  while  he  was  exhorting  them  to  merit  the  recom- 
pense, which  the  Grand  Signior  promised  to  such  as 
should  distinguish  themselves,  by  their  bravery,  the  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Isle  of  Negropont,  a  young  lord  of  singular 
valor,  and  Soliman's  favorite,  was  killed  by  his  side, 
with  a  ball  shot  from  a  musket.  Peri,  either  fearing  that 
the  Grand  Signior  would  impute  his  favorite's  death  to 
him,  or  else  desiring  to  revenge  it,  redoubled  his  efforts. 
The  Grand-master,  whose  valor  and  love  for  his  Order 
multiplied  him,  as  we  may  say,  on  this  occasion,  ran  to 
the  succor,  with  a  particular  body  of  Knights,  that  adhered 
to  his  person.  "  Let  us  go,"  says  he  to  those  about  him, 
"  and  repulse  the  Turks  :  we  should  not  be  afraid  of 
men,  whom  we  daily  throw  into  a  panic  fear."  At  the 
same  time,  he  charges  the  Infidels,  with  his  half-pike  in 
his  hand.  The  Knights  of  the  Language  of  Italy,  under 
hi>  eye,  and  in  imitation  of  so  great  an  example,  perform 
tli''  most  glorious  actions  :  they  all  expose  themselves  to 
the  greatest  dangers.  A  good  number  of  them  were  kill- 
ed, on  this  occasion  ;  and  we  must  do  them  this  justice, 
.!  to  tin:  (Iraml-iiiHstrr,  the  saving  of  Rhodes  was 
that  day  owing  to  their  courage  and  intrepidity. 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF   RHODES.  197 

Peri,  judiciously  concluding  that  it  would  be  in  vain 
for  him  to  persist  in  an  attack,  which  the  Grand-master 
himself  defended,  contented  himself  with  keeping  on  the 
fight ;  and,  drawing  his  body  of  foot  from  behind  the 
cavalier  that  served  to  cover  them,  he  put  himself  at  their 
head,  and  went  to  attack  a  new  bastion,  built  in  the 
Grand-master  Caretto's  time,  imagining  it  not  to  be  so 
well  provided  with  defendants,  and  that  he  should  be 
able  to  surprise  it.  His  troops  advanced  to  the  assault, 
with  great  resolution,  but  were  repulsed,  with  equal  vigor, 
by  the  Chevalier  d'Andelot,  who  commanded  at  that 
work.  The  citizens  and  inhabitants  ran  to  his  succor : 
the  Turks  were  soon  overwhelmed  with  showers  of  gren- 
adoes,  stones,  bitumen,  and  boiling  oil ;  and  the  artillery, 
planted  upon  the  flanks  of  the  adjoining  bastions,  scouring 
the  ditch,  made  a  horrible  slaughter  of  them.  Peri,  after 
losing  abundance  of  men,  in  these  two  attacks,  was  forc- 
ed, against  his  will,  to  sound  a  retreat. 

The  Janizaries,  disheartened  at  so  many  unsuccessful 
attacks,  murmured,  aloud,  against  an  enterprise,  wherein 
one  or  other  of  their  bravest  comrades  daily  lost  their 
lives.  The  Vizier  Mustapha,  fearing  lest  these  com- 
plaints should  reach  the  ears  of  Soliman,  and  that  that 
Prince,  like  most  of  his  predecessors,  should  make  him 
responsible  for  the  ill  success,  resolved  to  make  a  new 
assault  on  the  bastion  of  England,  and  either  carry  the 
place,  though  he  lost  never  so  many  soldiers,  or  die  him- 
self, at  the  foot  of  the  intrenchments.  He  communicated 
his  design  to  Achrnet  Basha,  who  was  encamped,  and 
commanded  in  the  quarter  opposite  to  the  posts  of  Spain 
and  Auvergne.  These  two  generals  agreed,  that,  while 
the  Vizier  attacked  the  English  bastion,  Achmet,  in  order 
to  divide  the  forces  of  the  besieged,  should  spring  his 
mines,  and  mount  over  the  ruins  they  would  make  upon 
the  breaches,  and  effect  a  lodgement,  there.  This  enter- 
prise was  put  in  execution,  on  the  seventeenth  of  Sep- 
tember. Mustapha  sallied  out  of  the  trenches,  at  the 
head  of  five  battalions.  The  troops,  sustained  by  his 
presence,  climbed  up  the  rubbish  and  ruins  of  the  wall, 
mounted  boldly  to  the  assault,  got  upon  the  breach,  and, 


198  GREAT  EVENTS. 

in  spite  of  all  the  fire  of  the  besieged,  made  their  way  as 
far  as  the  intrenchments,  and  planted  some  ensigns  upon 
them.  But  they  did  not  keep  this  first  advantage,  long. 
A  swarm  of  English  Knights,  led  on  by  a  Commander  of 
that  nation,  whose  name  was  John  Buck,  sallied  out, 
from  behind  the  intrenchments,  and,  being  sustained  by 
Prejan,  Grand  Prior  of  St.  Giles,  and  the  Commander 
Christopher  Valdner,  of  the  Language  of  Germany,  made 
so  furious  a  charge,  that  the  Infidels  were  forced  to  give 
back.  They  retired  in  good  order,  however,  and  still 
fighting.  Mustapha,  a  much  braver  soldier  than  an  able 
general,  led  on,  himself,  a  reenforcement  to  their  succor. 
The  engagement  begins,  again,  with  equal  fury.  The 
Turkish  general  throws  himself  into  the  midst  of  the 
Knights,  kills  some  of  them,  with  his  own  hand,  and,  had 
he  been  as  well  followed  by  his  soldiers,  Rhodes  would 
have  been  in  great  danger.  But  the  artillery  of  the  place, 
the  little  pieces,  especially,  that  played  upon  the'breach, 
and  a  great  number  of  musketeers,  that  galled  them  from 
behind  the  intrenchments,  made  so  terrible  a  fire,  that 
the  Infidels,  no  longer  regarding  the  menaces  of  Musta- 
pha, abandoned  the  breach,  and  dragged  him  along  with 
them,  in  their  flight.  How  glorious,  soever,  this  success 
might  be  to  the  Order,  nevertheless,  the  Knights  paid 
very  dear  for  it ;  they  lost,  on  this  occasion,  the  Com- 
manders, Buck  and  Valdner,  several  English  and  Ger- 
man Knights,  and  the  greatest  part  of  their  principal  offi- 
cers. 

Achmet  Basha  was  as  unfortunate  as  General  Musta- 
pha, in  his  attack.  He  sprung  his  mines,  as  had  been 
agreed  between  them  ;  but  that  which  was  under  the  post 
of  Auvergne  took  vent,  and  did  no  execution.  The 
mine,  which  played  under  the  post  of  Spain,  threw  down 
about  four  yards  of  an  advanced  work,  which  served  for 
a  sort  of  fore-wall.  The  Turks  advanced  immediately 
to  seize  it,  but  met  a  body  of  Spanish  Knights  upon  the 
ruins,  who  made  head  against  them,  and  kept  them  from 
approaching.  They  fought,  for  some  time,  at  a  distance, 
with  musket-shot ;  but,  as  the  Turks  advanced,  in  close 
and  good  order,  to  break  through  the  besieged,  the  Chev- 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  19$ 

alier  de  Mesnil,  captain  of  the  bulwark,  or  bastion,  of 
Auvergne,  and  the  Chevalier  de  Grimereaux,  made  the 
artillery  of  their  posts  play  so  apropos  and  continually, 
upon  the  thickest  of  the  battalions  of  the  Janizaries,  that 
those  troops,  though  brave  in  their  persons,  and  the  very 
flower  of  the  army,  could  stand  the  fury  of  it  no  longer, 
but  dispersed  themselves,  and  made  the  best  of  their  way 
to  the  trenches. 

Soliman  lost,  that  day,  three  thousand  men  ;  and  the 
Order,  besides  the  chieftains  above-mentioned,  had  like- 
wise several  Knights  killed,  on  these  two  occasions  ;  and, 
among  the  rest,  Philip  de  Arcillan,  of  Spanish  extrac- 
tion, whose  great  valor  justly  merited  him  the  honor  of 
having  his  name  recorded.  Prejan  de  Bidoux,  Grand 
Prior  of  St.  Giles,  who  made  all  the  posts  that  were  at- 
tacked his  own,  was  shot  through  the  neck,  with  a  mus 
ket-ball,  but  was  happily  cured  of  his  wound. 

About  this  time,*  theyf  discovered  the  treason  of 
the  Jewish  physician,  who,  by  order  of  Selim  the  First, 
had  formerly  settled  at  Rhodes,  where  he  served  as  a 
spy  to  the  Turks.  They  caught  him  shooting  an  arrow, 
with  a  letter  tied  to  it,  into  their  camp  ;  upon  which  he 
was  immediately  seized,  and  being,  on  such  strong  pre- 
sumptions, put  to  the  torture,  he  owned  that  he  had  given 
the  Infidels  continual  advice  of  the  weak  parts  of  the 
place,  and  of  every  thing  that  passed  in  it ;  and  that, 
when  he  was  seized,  it  was  the  fifth  letter  that  he  had 
conveyed  to  them,  in  the  same  way.  His  judges  con- 
demned him  to  be  quartered  ;  and  it  is  pretended  that 
he  died  a  Christian.  His  confession  of  Christianity  was 
very  much  suspected  ;  but,  if  he  made  it  only  to  save  his 
life,  it  stood  him  in  no  stead,  for  he  suffered  the  punish- 
ment he  had  so  justly  deserved. 

Soliman,  in  the  mean  time,  enraged  at  the  little  prog- 
ress of  his  arms,  held  a  great  council  of  war,  to  which 
he  summoned  his  principal  officers.  Various  opinions 
were  proposed  in  it.  Mustapha,  who,  before  the  siege, 
out  o'pure  complaisance,  had  represented  the  enterprise 

*  September  20.         t  Bourbon,  p.  31. 


200  GREAT   EVENTS. 

as  easy,  now,  dreading  his  passion  and  resentment,  pro- 
posed the  giving  a  general  assault,  and  attacking  the 
town  in  four  different  places,  at  the  same  time. 

The  Grand  Signior  approved  of  this  advice.  The 
general  assault  was  fixed  for  the  twenty-fourth  of  Sep- 
tember ;  and  Soliman,  to  inspire  new  ardor  into  his  sol- 
diers, gave  out,  that  he  would  give  them  the  plundering 
of  Rhodes,  provided  they  could  take  it,  sword  in  hand. 
The  Turks,  before  they  gave  this  assault,  made  a  con- 
tinual fire,  with  their  cannon  ;  and,  in  order  to  enlarge 
the  breaches,  battered  the  bastions  of  England  and  Spain, 
the  post  of  Provence,  and  the  platform  of  Italy,  for  two 
days  together.  The  evening  before  the  assault,  the 
Grand-master  suspected,  by  the  motions  he  perceived  in 
the  enemy's  camp,  that  they  were  going  to  attack  him. 
He  gave  out  his  orders,  and  the  Knights,  following  his 
example,  redoubled  their  care.  But,  though  they  had 
just  reason  to  fear,  that  the  enemy  would  take  their  ad- 
vantage, of  opening  to  themselves  a  passage  through  the 
ruins  of  those  strongholds  that  had  been  battered  down, 
in  the  vast  circuit  of  the  walls,  they  yet  were  forced  to 
regulate  their  measures  by  the  few  troops  they  had  left, 
and  to  distribute  the  old  commanders  and  principal  offi- 
cers into  such  posts,  as  the  violence  of  the  attacks,  the 
wideness  of  the  breaches,  and  the  defect  in  the  fortifica- 
tions, exposed  to  the  greatest  dangers. 

The  Grand-master,  taking  up  his  weapons,  visited  all 
the  quarters,  to  see  the  disposition  of  his  troops,  and  ex- 
hort them  to  a  noble  defence  ;  and,  addressing  himself 
to  the  Knights  whom  he  found  in  their  respective  posts,  "  I 
should  offer  violence  to  your  courage,"  said  he  to  them, 
"  should  I  pretend  to  invigorate  it,  by  an  harangue  ;  nncl 
it  would  be  throwing  away  time,  to  tell  you,  what  your 
valor  has  so  often  inspired  into  you,  on  the  like  occasions. 
Consider,  only,  my  dear  brethren,  that  we  are  going  to 
fight  for  our  Order,  and  for  the  defence  of  our  religion  ; 
and  that  a  glorious  victory  must  be  the  reward  of  our  val- 
or, or  else  Rhodes,  the  strongest  rampart  of  Christen- 
dom, must  serve  us  for  a  grave."  Whenever  he  met 
any  of  the  townsmen  and  inhabitants,  "  Think,"  said 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  201 

he  to  them,  "  that,  besides  the  defence  of  the  faith,  you 
have  taken  up  arms  for  your  country,  for  your  wives, 
your  maidens,  and  your  children  :  fight  gallantly,  my 
friends,  in  order  to  rescue  them  from  the  infamy,  with 
wbich  the  Barbarians  threaten  them.  Their  liberty  and 
your  own,  your  blood,  your  honor,  and  your  fortunes, 
are  all  in  your  hands,  and  depend  upon  your  bravery." 

These  few  words,  pronounced  with  an  heroic  ardor, 
had  such  an  effect  on  all,  that  the  townsmen  as  well  as  the 
Knights,  and  the  Greeks  no  less  than  the  Latins,  made 
public  protestations,  that  nothing  but  death  should  make 
them  abandon  their  posts  ;  and,  embracing  one  another, 
in  a  most  tender  and  affectionate  manner,  their  eyes 
streaming  with  tears,  they  bid,  as  it  were,  a  last  adieu  to 
each  other,  resolutely  bent  either  to  conquer  or  die. 

The  Turks,  at  daybreak,  made  a  furious  fire  from  all 
their  batteries,  especially  against  the  posts  which  they 
designed  to  attack ;  not  only  in  order  to  widen  the 
breaches,  but  also  to  be  less  exposed  to  view,  as  they 
marched  through  the  smoke  of  the  artillery.  They 
mounted  boldly  to  the  assault,  in  four  different  places  : 
they  had  never  discovered  so  much  resolution  since  the 
beginning  of  the  siege,  especially  the  Janizaries,  who 
fought  under  the  young  Sultan's  eye. 

That  Prince,  in  order  to  animate  them  by  his  presence, 
had  placed  himself  on  a  rising  ground,  near  adjoining, 
where  a  scaffold  was  erected  for  him,  whence  he,  as  from 
an  amphitheatre,  was  able  to  distinguish  and  judge  of  the 
valor  of  those  brave  fellows,  without  any  danger  to  him- 
self. The  cannon  of  the  place  begin  to  play  :  this  is 
succeeded  by  showers  of  arrows  and  musket-shot.  The 
Knights,  in  all  quarters,  show  their  intrepidity,  and  the  sol- 
diers their  obedience  and  courage  :  some  of  them  burn 
the  assailants  with  boiling  oil  and  fireworks,  while  others 
roll  stones  of  a  vast  size  upon  them,  or  pierce  them 
through,  with  their  pikes.  The  English  bastion  was  the 
place  where  there  was  the  greatest  bloodshed.  It  was 
the  weakest  part  of  the  place,  the  warmest  attacked,  and 
withal,  the  best  defended.  The  Grand-master  runs  thith- 
er, himself ;  his  presence,  on  the  one  side,  inspires  the 


202  GREAT  EVENTS. 

Knights  with  fresh  ardor  ;  hope  of  booty,  on  the  other, 
encourages  the  Turkish  soldier.  Never  did  the  Infidels 
discover  so  much  eagerness,  in  battle  ;  they  mount  upon 
the  ruins  of  the  wall,  through  a  storm  of  bullets,  javelins, 
and  stones  :  nothing  stops  them,  and  several  of  them 
leaped,  like  so  many  desperadoes,  from  the  machines 
which  they  had  brought  near  the  walls,  upon  the  ram- 
parts, where  they  were  soon  cut  to  pieces.  The  Knights 
throw  the  Turks  from  the  top  of  the  breach,  headlong 
into  the  ditch  :  they  overturn  the  ladders,  and  the  can- 
non of  the  place  make  so  terrible  a  slaughter,  that  the 
Turks  give  way,  retire  back,  and  are  ready  to  give  over 
the  assault.  But  the  General's  lieutenant,  who  com- 
manded at  that  attack,  an  officer  highly  respected  among 
the  soldiers,  for  his  rare  valor,  rallies,  and  leads  them 
on  to  the  attack.  He  himself  mounts  first  upon  the 
breach,  and  plants  an  ensign  upon  it.  Happily  for  the 
besieged,  a  cannon-ball,  fired  from  the  post  of  Spain, 
carries  him  off,  and  throws  him  into  the  ditch.  One 
would  have  thought,  that  his  death  would  naturally  have 
cooled  the  ardor  of  his  soldiers  ;  but  thirst  of  revenge  in- 
spired them,  that  instant,  with  a  contrary  sentiment,  and 
filled  their  hearts  with  a  sort  of  rage  and  fury  ;  they  rush 
on,  headlong,  into  danger,  pleased  to  die,  themselves, 
provided  they  could  kill  a  Christian.  But  all  their  im- 
petuosity could  not  make  the  Knights  retire  one  single 
step.  The  priests,  the  religious,  the  old  men,  and  the 
very  children,  resolve  to  have  their  share  of  the  danger, 
and  repulse  the  enemy  with  stones,  boiling  oil,  and  com- 
bustible matter. 

Neither  did  the  women  yield,  in  assiduity,  to  the  pio- 
neers, nor  was  their  bravery  inferior  to  that  of  the  sol- 
diers :  several  lost  their  lives,  in  defending  their  hus- 
bands and  children.  Historians  make  mention  of  a 
Greek  woman,  of  exquisite  beauty,  who,  distracted  at  the 
death  of  her  lover,  and  resolving  not  to  survive  him,  after 
kissing  her  two  children,  and  making  the  sign  of  the  cross 
on  their  foreheads,  puts  on  the  officer's  clothes,  that 
were  still  dyed  with  his  blood,  snatches  up  his  sabre, 
runs  to  the  breach,  kills  the  first  Turk  she  meets,  wound* 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF   RHODES.  203 

several  others,  and  dies,  fighting  with  a  bravery  equal  to 
the  most  courageous  officer  or  the  most  resolute  soldier. 

The  engagement  was  carried  on  with  equal  fury  and 
obstinacy,  at  the  other  attacks.  The  greatest  danger 
was  at  the  post  of  Spain.  The  Aga  of  the  Janizaries, 
who  commanded  on  that  side,  led  on  his  soldiers  to  the 
assault.  The  artillery  of  the  place  killed  a  great  num- 
ber of  them,  before  they  could  get  to  the  foot  of  the 
breach.  Such  of  the  Turks  as  are  able  to  cross  the 
ditch  go  to  undermine  the  wall,  and  are  frequently  bur- 
ied under  its  ruins,  while  others  of  them  make  use  of 
ladders,  to  mount  up.  Some  of  them  heap  the  dead 
bodies  of  their  comrades  on  one  another,  get  to  the  top 
of  the  wall,  in  spite  of  all  the  opposition  of  the  besieged, 
and  penetrate  as  far  as  the  intrenchrnents,  on  which,  it  is 
said,  they  planted  no  less  than  thirty  ensigns.  Unhap- 
pily for  the  Knights,  such  of  them  as  had  the  guard  of  the 
bastion  of  Spain  had  like  to  have  been  surprised,  by  not 
standing  on  their  guard.  The  Turks  having  showed  no 
signs  of  any  design  to  attack  them,  those  Knights,  re- 
proaching themselves  for  being  idle  in  their  post,  and  see- 
ing the  bastion  of  Italy  hard  pressed  by  the  Turks,  ran 
to  their  succor,  and  left  only  a  few  sentinels  upon  the 
bastion  of  Spain.  These  soldiers,  likewise,  contrary  to 
all  the  rules  of  war,  quitted  their  post,  to  help  the  gun- 
ners, in  transporting  some  pieces  of  cannon,  which  they 
had  a  mind  to  point  against  the  post  that  the  Aga  of  the 
Janizaries  was  attacking.  Some  Turks,  who  lay  con- 
cealed behind  a  heap  of  ruins,  seeing  the  bastion  aban- 
doned, mount,  without  being  discovered,  get  to  the  top 
of  the  work,  make  themselves  masters  of  it,  cut  the  gun- 
ners to  pieces,  pull  down  the  ensigns  of  the  Order,  and 
plant  those  of  Soliman  in  their  stead,  and,  proclaiming 
victory,  invite  their  comrades  to  join  them  ;  upon  which 
the  Aga  immediately  sent  a  detachment  of  his  Janizaries 
to  that  place. 

The  Grand-master,  having  notice  of  this  surprise,  runs 
thither,  in  an  instant,  makes  them  point  the  artillery  of 
the  bastion  of  Auvergne  against  a  breach  which  the  ene- 
my's cannon  had  made  in  that  of  Spain,  keeps  the  Turks 


204  GREAT  EVENTS. 

from  approaching  it ;  and,  from  another  battery,  which 
faced  the  bastion,  he  makes  them  fire  upon  those  that 
were  in  possession  of  it,  and  who  were  endeavoring  to 
make  a  lodgement  there.  On  another  side,  the  com- 
mander of  Bourbon,  by  his  orders,  at  the  head  of  a 
troop  of  brave  soldiers,  enters  by  the  casemate  into  the 
bastion,  mounts  up  to  the  top,  upon  the  platform,  sword 
in  hand,  in  order  to  drive  out  the  Infidels  ;  where  he  finds 
part  of  them  killed  by  the  cannon  ;  he  cuts  the  rest  in 
pieces,  again  sets  up  the  ensigns  of  the  Order,  pulls  down 
those  of  the  Turks,  and  turns  the  artillery  of  the  bastion 
upon  such  as  were  mounting  up  a  breach  that  had  been 
made  in  that  part  of  the  wall  which  was  called  the  post 
of  Spain.  The  Aga  maintained  his  ground  in  that  place, 
in  spite  of  the  gallant  resistance  of  the  Knights.  The 
Grand-master  comes  back,  thither,  at  the  head  of  his 
guards,  and  throws  himself  into  the  midst  of  the  Infidels, 
with  an  ardor  which  made  his  Knights  tremble,  as  much 
as  his  enemies,  but  from  a  different  motive.  The  en- 
gagement begins  again,  with  fresh  fury  ;  the  soldiers  as 
yet  unhurt,  the  wounded  and  the  dying,  all  blended  to- 
gether, after  a  combat  of  six  hours,  want  rather  strength 
than  courage  to  continue  it.  The  Grand-master,  fearing 
that  his  men,  who  were  quite  spent,  with  such  a  long  re- 
sistance, should  at  last  be  borne  down  by  the  multitude 
of  their  enemies,  drew  a  reenforcement  of  two  hundred 
men,  with  some  Knights  at  their  head,  out  of  the  tower 
of  Si.  Nicholas.  These  troops,  who  were  fresh,  and 
had  suffered  no  fatigue,  soon  changed  the  face  of  the  en- 
gagement. The  Janizaries  begin  to  give  back  ;  and, 
finding  themselves  pressed  by  these  brave  soldiers,  aban- 
don the  breach,  and  fly  to  recover  their  trenches.  Soli- 
man,  to  cover  the  shame  of  their  flight,  and  save  the 
honor  of  his  troops,  ordered  a  retreat  to  be  sounded,  af- 
ter having  left  upon  the  breach  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
wall,  upwards  of  fifteen  thousand  men,  and  several  cap- 
tains ot  great  reputation,  that  lost  their  lives  in  these  dif- 

attacks. 

Th"  Khodians  sustained  as  considerable  a  loss  as  they 
did1,  in  proportion  ;  and,  besides  the  soldiers  and  inhabi- 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  205 

tants,  they  had  a  great  number  of  Knights  killed  in  thesa 
assaults,  among  which  was  the  Chevalier  du  Fresnoi, 
Commander  of  Romagna,  the  Commander  of  St.  Cam- 
elle,  of  the  Language  of  Provence,  Oliver  de  Tressac,  of 
the  Language  of  Auvergne,  and  brother  Peter  Philips, 
the  Grand-master's  receiver.  The  Chevalier  John  le 
Roux,  surnamed  Parnides,  had  his  hand,  with  which  he 
had  slain  seven  Turks,  carried  off,  that  day,  by  a  cannon- 
ball.  There  were  few  Knights  but  what  were  wounded, 
and  there  scarce  remained  sufficient  enough  unhurt  to 
continue  the  service. 

The  Sultan,  furious  at  the  ill  success  of  this  enterprise, 
fell  upon  his  General  Mustapha,  who,  out  of  complai- 
sance, had  advised  him  to  it,  and  gave  orders  for  his  be- 
ing shot  to  death,  with  arrows  ;  a  sad  recompense  for  all 
his  services,  but  such  a  one  as  slaves  and  servile  cour- 
tiers are  frequently  exposed  to,  under  the  government  of 
the  Infidels.  The  army  was  drawn  up,  in  battle  array, 
in  order  to  be  spectators  of  the  death  of  their  General ; 
and  the  unhappy  man  was  already  tied  to  the  fatal  stake, 
when  Peri  Basha,  provoked  at  the  punishment  they  were 
going  to  inflict  on  his  friend,  made  them  defer  the  exe- 
cution, as  he  was  persuaded  that  Soliman,  when  the  heat 
of  his  passion  was  over,  would  not  be  concerned  that 
they  had  prevented  such  a  stain  to  his  glory.  As  he  had 
educated  that  young  Prince,  from  his  infancy,  and  had 
still  a  great  ascendancy  over  him,  he  went  and  threw 
himself  at  his  feet,  and  begged  him  to  pardon  Mnstapha. 
But  he  found,  by  his  own  experience,  that  lions  are  not 
to  be  tamed  :  Soliman,  still  in  the  first  transports  of  his 
wrath,  jealous  of  his  authority,  and  enraged  to  see  there 
was  a  man  in  his  empire,  daring  enough  to  suspend  the 
execution  of  his  orders,  condemned  him,  at  the  same 
time,  to  undergo  the  same  punishment.  The  other  bash- 
as  were  in  a  terrible  consternation,  and  threw  themselves 
at  his  feet,  in  order  to  mollify  him  ;  when  the  Sultan, 
coming  to  himself,  was  moved  at  their  tears.  He  par- 
doned Mustapha  and  Peri,  but  would  never  see  Mustapha, 
more,  and  afterwards  sent  him  at  a  distance  from  court, 
under  pretence  of  another  employment. 

18  G.   K 


206  GREAT   EVENTS. 

This  Prince,  despairing  to  carry  the  place,  seemed 
resolved  to  raise  the  siege  ;  and  it  is  said,  that  whole 
companies,  and  the  heavy  baggage,  began  to  file  off  to- 
wards the  sea,  in  order  to  reembark  ;  when  an  Albanian 
soldier,  getting  out  of  the  town,  came  into  the  Turkish 
camp,  and  assured  them,  that  most  of  the  Knights  were 
either  killed  or  wounded,  at  the  assault,  and  that  those 
who  were  left  were  not  able  to  sustain  another.  They 
pretend,  that  this  deserter's  report  was  confirmed  by  a 
letter  from  d'Amaral,  who  told  the  Grand  Signior  that 
the  besieged  were  reduced  to  the  last  extremity. 

These  several  advices  determined  him  to  continue  the 
siege ;  and,  in  order  to  show  his  troops  and  the  besieged 
that  he  was  resolved  to  pass  the  Winter  before  the  place, 
he  ordered  a  house  to  be  built  on  Mount  Philerme,  for 
himself  to  lodge  in  ;  giving,  at  the  same  time,  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  to  Achmet  Basha,  an  able  engineer, 
who  changed  the  method  of  carrying  on  the  siege.  He 
resolved  to  be  as  sparing,  as  possible,  of  his  soldiers' 
blood  ;  and,  before  he  led  them  to  an  assault,  to  prepare 
for  it,  by  new  cannonadings,  and  particularly  by  sapping 
and  mining,  and  other  subterraneous  works,  in  which  he 
was  particularly  skilled. 

This  new  General  made  his  first  efforts  against  the  bas- 
tion of  Spain,  the  ditch  whereof  was  narrower  and  not 
so  deep,  as  in  other  places  ;  and,  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  descent  of  it,  his  artillery  played,  for  several  days 
together,  so  furiously  upon  that  work,  that  he  ruined  all 
the  defences  of  it ;  there  was  nothing  left  but  the  barba- 
can  or  faussebraye,  which  lay  so  low,  that  the  cannon 
could  not  hurt  it.  The  Turkish  General  resolved  to  run 
his  trenches  as  far  as  this  work,  which  covered  the  foot 
of  the  wall  ;  but  these  trenches  being  seen  from  the  bas- 
tion of  Auvergne,  the  cannon  of  the  Knights  played  upon 
them.  The  Turks,  in  order  to  shelter  themselves  from 
it,  raised  n  thick  wall  before  the  trenches  ;  but  they  could 
not  bring  these  several  works  to  perfection,  without  the 
loss  of  an  infinite  number  of  soldiers  and  pioneers.  No 
one  could  show  himself,  but  he  was  immediately  exposed 
to  the  fire  of  the  artillery,  and  a  shower  of  musket-shot ; 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  207 

and  the  Knights,  at  the  same  time,  were  continually  throw- 
ing grenadoes  and  fire-pots  into  their  works.  The 
Turkish  General,  to  guard  against  them,  raised  along  the 
curtain  a  gallery,  with  planks,  which  he  covered  with  raw 
hides,  of  which  the  fire  could  not  take  hold.  Under 
shelter  of  this  new  work,  he  undermined  the  wall,  while 
other  companies  of  pioneers  and  miners  were  continually 
at  work,  to  penetrate  under  the  bastions,  and  run  mines 
through  that  place. 

These  mines  having  thrown  down  a  great  many  yards 
of  the  wall  of  the  post  of  Spain,  the  Barbarians  advanced 
to  the  assault ;  but,  coming  up  to  the  breach,  they  found 
themselves  stopped  by  new  intrenchments,  lined  with 
artillery,  the  continual  fire  whereof,  after  killing  a  great 
many  of  their  bravest  officers,  and  a  prodigious  number 
of  soldiers,  forced  the  rest  to  run  back  to  their  trenches, 
for  shelter. 

The  Bailiff  Martinengo,  who  was  always  in  action,  had, 
in  order  to  hinder  the  Infidels  from  coming  to  reconnoi- 
ter  the  works  he  was  making  within  the  place,  made  them 
cut  loopholes  for  the  cannon,  in  the  wall  of  the  counter- 
scarp on  the  side  of  the  town,  whence  the  Knights  killed, 
with  musket-ball,  all  that  durst  advance  near  it.  The 
Turks,  after  his  example,  did  the  like,  on  their  side,  and 
a  continual  fire  was  kept  up,  on  both  sides.  Unhappily, 
a  random  shot,  from  the  trenches,  struck  Martinengo  in 
the  eye,  just  as  he  was  looking  through  one  of  those  loop- 
holes, to  examine  the  enemy's  works  ;  he  fell,  upon  re- 
ceiving the  shot,  and  they  thought  him  mortally  wounded. 
The  Order  could  not  have  had  a  greater  loss,  at  such  a 
juncture  ;  for  he  was,  in  a  manner,  the  only  person  that 
directed  all  operations,  and  determined  the  time  and  pla- 
ces where  the  Knights  should  exert  their  valor. 

The  Grand-master,  upon  the  news  of  his  wound,  ran 
immediately  to  the  place,  and  caused  him  to  be  carried 
into  his  own  palace.  By  his  care,  he  was  afterwards 
cured  of  his  wound, — the  Knights,  and  all  the  people,  of- 
fering up  their  prayers  for  his  recovery.  The  Grand- 
master filled  up  his  post,  in  his  absence,  and  undertook 
himself,  to  defend  the  bastion  of  Spain.  The  Chevalier 


208  GREAT   EVENTS. 

de  Cluys,  Grand  Prior  of  France,  the  Commander  of  St. 
Jaille,  Bailiff  of  Manosqiie,  the  Bailiff  of  the  Morea,  and 
the  oldest  Knights  of  the  Order,  staid  about  the  Grand- 
master's person,  in  order  to  share  with  him,  in  the  perils 
and  glory  of  this  defence.  Actions  of  extraordinary 
valor  were  performed,  on  both  sides  ;  there  were  new 
engagements,  every  day.  It  would  appear  very  surpris- 
ing, that  so  small  a  number  of  Christians,  who  had  noth- 
ing to  cover  them,  but  some  barricadoes  and  weak  in- 
trenchments,  should  be  able  to  hold  out,  so  long,  against 
such  a  prodigious  number  of  assailants,  if  this  handful  of 
men  had  not  been  composed  of  old  Knights,  whose  valor 
had  been  experienced,  on  a  thousand  other  occasions, 
and  who,  on  this,  were  unanimously  resolved  to  sacrifice 
their  lives  for  the  defence  of  their  religion.  Men  are  very 
strong,  and  very  formidable,  when  they  are  not  afraid 
of  death.  I 

Historians,  speaking  of  their  zeal  and  courage,  use  but 
one  sort  of  eulogium,  for  all  these  noble  soldiers  of  Jesus 
Christ.  Not  but  there  were  among  these  warriors  differ- 
ent talents,  and  more  or  less  capacity,  in  the  arts  of  war  ; 
and  we  should  justly  deserve  to  be  censured,  if  we  did 
not  do  justice  to  the  memory  of  the  Grand-master,  who, 
for  four  and  thirty  days,  that  the  Bailiff  de  Martinen- 
go's  wound  and  illness  lasted,  never  stirred  from  the  in- 
trenchment  made  on  the  Spanish  bastion,  nor  ever  took 
any  rest,  either  day  or  night,  excepting  only  for  some 
moments,  on  a  mattrass,  which  they  laid  for  him,  at  the 
foot  of  the  intrenchment ;  officiating,  sometimes  in  the 
quality  of  a  soldier  and  sometimes  in  that  of  pioneer,  but 
always  in  that  of  general,  if  we  except  that  ardor  which 
made  him  fight  like  a  young  knight,  and  rush  into  perils 
with  less  precaution  than  became  a  sovereign. 

Tli<3  example  of  the  Grand-master,  who  was  so  very 
careless  of  his  own  life,  made  the  Knights,  left  in  the 
principal  posts  of  the  place,  expose  daily  their  own, 
sometimes  in  defending  the  breaches  and  intrenchments, 
and  often  in  engagements  under  ground,  when  they  \\< TC 
to  countermine  and  meet  with  the  eftemy's  miners.  There 
scarce  passed  a  day,  without  an  engagement,  in  some  place 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  209 

or  other.  Besides  the  bastion  of  Spain,  which  was  al- 
most entirely  ruined,  the  Turks  directed  their  principal 
attacks  against  the  posts  of  England,  Provence,  and  Ita- 
ly. The  prodigious  number  of  troops,  of  which  their 
army  consisted,  easily  supplied  them  with  men  for  all 
these  attacks.  The  walls  were  quite  demolished,  in  sev- 
eral places,  and  the  breaches  were  so  large,  that  the  Turks 
could  mount,  in  formed  battalions,  to  the  assault  of  the 
bastion  of  England.  The  Knights,  who  had  undertaken 
the  defence  of  it,  lined  the  ramparts,  sword  in  hand,  and 
with  their  bodies  made  a  new  parapet,  for  its  defence. 
They  were  seconded  by  the  artillery  of  the  city,  which 
played  from  several  places,  upon  the  foot  of  the  breach. 
The  Turks,  without  being  daunted  at  the  number  of  their 
slain,  rush  on,  with  fury,  to  attack  the  Knights,  come  up 
with  them,  grapple  with  them,  and,  by  their  multitudes 
as  much  as  by  their  courage,  force  them  to  give  back. 
These  noble  defendants  saw  themselves  on  the  point  of 
being  overwhelmed  by  the  crowd  of  their  enemies,  when 
the  Chevalier  de  Morgut,  Grand  Prior  of  Navarre,  and 
one  of  the  adjutant-captains,  as  they  were  then  called, 
ran,  with  his  company,  to  their  succor,  restored  the  bat- 
tle, forced  the  Infidels,  in  their  turn,  to  retire,  and,  with 
new  efforts,  obliged  them,  at  last,  after  the  loss  of  above 
six  hundred  men,  to  sound  a  retreat,  and  give  over  the 
attack. 

But,  if  the  Order  had  such  brave  defendants  in  the 
persons  of  her  Knights,  she  likewise  nourished  in  her  bo- 
som, and  even  among  her  principal  chiefs,  a  traitor,  who 
omitted  nothing  to  forward  the  loss  of  Rhodes,  and  the 
ruin  of  the  whole  Order.  The  reader  may  easily  per- 
ceive, that  I  mean  the  Chancellor  d'Amaral.  The 
Commander  de  Bourbon,  in  his  account  of  the  Siege  of 
Rhodes,  relates  this  tragical  event  as  follows. 

D'Amaral,  says  this  author,  ever  tormented  with  rage, 
and  without  being  moved,  at  seeing  the  blood  of  his  breth- 
ren shed,  every  day,  stiil  kept  on  his  criminal  intelligence 
with  the  Turks.  One  of  his  valets  de  chambre,  Blaise 
Diez  by  name,  in  whom  he  entirely  confided,  used  to 
come  with  a  bow  in  his  hand,  at  unseasonable  hours,  to 
18* 


210  GREAT   EVENTS. 

the  post  of  Auvergne,  whence,  whenever  he  fancied  him- 
self not  to  be  perceived,  he  shot  an  arrow,  with  a  letter 
fixed  to  it,  into  the  enemy's  camp.  His  frequent  resort 
to  the  same  place,  especially  in  a  besieged  city,  immedi- 
ately gave  some  suspicion  ;  but,  as  they  had  not  seen  him 
shoot  any  of  his  letters,  and  besides,'  that  he  belonged  to 
a  person  of  great  authority,  such  as  had  observed  his 
stolen  visits  thither  durst  not  mention  it,  at  first,  for  fear 
of  drawing  upon  themselves  the  resentment  of  a  powerful 
and  revengeful  man.  There  was  only  one  Knight,  who, 
stifling  all  considerations,  and  seeing  the  servant  return 
often  to  the  same  place,  gave  private  notice  thereof  to 
the  Grand-master,  who  immediately  gave  orders  for  the 
seizing  of  this  servant.*  He  was  afterwards  examined 
by  the  judges'  of  the  castellany,  who,  not  being  satisfied 
with  his  equivocal  answers  to  their  interrogatories,  order- 
ed him  to  be  put  to  the  torture.  He  owned,  upon  the 
very  first  twitches  of  it,  that  he  had,  by  his  master's  com- 
mand, thrown  down  several  letters  into  the  Turkish  camp, 
to  point  out  to  them  the  weakest  places  of  the  city.  He 
added,  that  he  had  likewise  acquainted  them,  that  the  Or- 
der had  lost  the  greatest  part  of  its  Knights,  in  the  last  as- 
saults ;  and  besides,  that  the  city  was  in  want  of  wine, 
powder,  ammunition,  and  provisions  ;  but  that,  though 
the  Grand-master  was  reduced  to  extremity,  the  Grand 
Signior  ought  not  yet  to  flatter  himself  with  the  thought 
of  being  master  of  the  place,  any  other  way  than  by  force 
of  arms. 

This  deposition  was  laid  before  the  council,  who  gave 
orders  for  seizing  the  Chancellor,  whom  they  carried  to 
the  tower  of  St.  Nicholas.  Two  commanders,  grand- 
crosses,  repaired  thither,  with  the  magistrates  of  the  city, 
to  examine  and  try  him  :  they  read  to  him  the  deposition 
of  his  servant,  who  was  afterwards  confronted  with  him, 
and  maintained,  to  his  face,  that  it  was  by  his  orders, 
only,  that  he  had  frequently  gone  to  the  bastion  of  Au- 
vergne, and  had  thrown  letters  thence  into  the  camp  of 
the  Infidels  This  deposition  was  confirmed  by  that  of 

*  October  80. 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF   RHODES.  21  1 

a  Greek  priest,  chaplain  to  the  Order,  who  declared  be- 
fore the  judges,  that,  passing  one  day  by  the  faussebraye 
of  the  bastion  of  Auvergne,  in  order  to  observe  the  ene- 
my's works,  he  found  the  Chancellor  in  a  by-corner,  with 
this  very  servant,  who  had  a  crossbow,  with  a  quarrel,  or 
square  arrow,  in  his  hand,  to  which  he  perceived  there 
was  a  paper  tied  ;  that  the  Chancellor,  who  was  then 
looking  through  a  loophole  for  the  cannon,  returning  back, 
seemed  surprised  to  see  him,  so  near  him,  and  demanded 
of  him,  roughly,  and  in  an  angry  manner,  what  he  want- 
ed :  and  that,  rinding  his  presence  in  that  place  was  disa- 
greeable to  him,  he  had  made  off,  as  fast  as  possible. 

Diez  agreed  to  the  Greek  priest's  deposition,  in  all  its 
circumstances.  This  servant,  who  might  perhaps  flatter 
himself  with  the  hopes  of  escaping  punishment,  by  accus- 
ing his  master,  added  further,  that  the  Chancellor  was  the 
person  that  had  persuaded  the  Grand  Signior  to  invade 
the  island,  by  the  advices  he  sent  him  of  the  condition  of 
the  place,  and  despatching  the  slave  before-mentioned  to 
Constantinople,  the  whole  negotiation  passing  through  his 
hands.  They  put  the  Chancellor,  at  the  same  time,  in 
mind,  that,  on  the  day  of  the  Grand-master's  election,  he 
could  not  help  saying,  that  he  would  be  the  last  Grand- 
master of  Rhodes.  D'Amaral,  no  ways  confused,  being 
confronted,  a  second  time,  with  his  servant  and  the  Greek 
priest,  affirmed,  that  Diez  was  a  villain  and  an  impostor, 
whose  deposition,  he  said,  was  nothing  else  but  the  effect 
of  the  resentment  he  had  entertained,  on  account  of  pun- 
ishments that  his  ill  conduct  had  occasioned  him.  He 
flatly  denied  all  the  facts,  advanced  by  the  Greek  priest, 
with  an  intrepidity  that  ought  only  to  attend  on  innocence. 
They  were  forced,  in  fine,  to  have  recourse  to  the  rack  ; 
but,  before  they  put  him  to  it,  the  judges,  who  were  his 
brother  Knights,  in  order  to  save  him  from  the  torture  of 
it,  as  also  to  get  from  him  an  account  of  his  accomplices, 
conjured  him,  in  the  most  pressing  terms,  to  encourage 
them  to  save  his  life  by  an  ingenuous  confession  of  his 
faults.  But  the  Chancellor  rejected  their  offices,  with 
indignation,  and  demanded  of  them,  haughtily,  if  they 
thought  him  base  enough,  after  having  served  the  Order 


212  GREAT   EVENTS. 

for  above  forty  years,  to  dishonor  himself,  at  the  end  of 
his  life,  by  the  confession  of  a  crime  that  he  was  incapa- 
ble of  committing.  He  bore  the  torture,  with  the  same 
intrepidity  ;  and  owned  only,  that,  at  the  time  of  the 
Grand-master's  election,  at  a  time  when  the  Turks  were 
threatening  Rhodes  with  a  siege,  having  no  great  opinion, 
as  he  said,  of  the  courage  and  abilities  of  1'Isle-Adam,  he 
had  dropped  a  word  or  two,  and  said,  that  he  would  per- 
haps be  the  last  Grand-master  of  Rhodes  ;  when,  turning 
towards  his  judges,  he  asked  them,  if  a  word,  that  emu- 
lation and  a  rivalship  for  the  same  dignity  had  extorted 
from  him,  deserved  to  have  the  great  Chancellor  of  the 
Order  put  into  the  hands  of  executioners.  But  the  judg- 
es, being  persuaded  of  his  criminal  correspondence  with 
the  Turks,  were  not  dazzled  by  his  protestations.  No- 
body took  his  recriminations  against  Diez  for  proofs  of 
his  innocence  :  the  master  and  servant  were  both  con- 
demned to  death.  The  Chancellor  was  sentenced  to  be 
beheaded,  and  Diez  to  be  hanged.  Their  bodies  were 
afterwards  quartered,  and  exposed  to  the  view  of  the 
Turks,  upon  the  principal  bastions  of  the  place.  The 
valet  was  executed  first.  He  was  born  a  Jew,  but  had 
been  converted,  and  declared,  at  his  execution,  that  he 
died  a  -good  Christian.  Before  d'Amaral  was  put  to 
death,  an  assembly  was  held  in  the  great  church  of  St. 
John,  in  which  the  Bailiff  de  Manosque  presided.  The 
criminal  was  brought  thither  ;  they  read  to  him  his  sen- 
tence, which  ordered  him  to  be  degraded,  and  stripped 
of  the  habit  of  the  Order  ;  which  was  done,  with  all  the 
ceremonies  prescribed  by  the  statutes.  They  delivered 
him  over,  afterwards,  to  the  secular  arm,  who  carried  him 
to  prison,  and,  the  next  day,  he  was  carried  in  a  chair  to 
the  public  place,  where  he  was  to  be  executed.  He 
looked  upon  all  the  preparatives  to  his  execution,  and 
the  approaches  of  death,  with  a  resolution  worthy  of  a 
better  cause  ;  but  his  refusing,  in  that  extremity,  to  rec- 
ommend himself  to  the  protection  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
whose  image,  the  priest,  that  assisted  him,  presented  to 
him,  gave  them  no  advantageous  opinion  of  his  piety. 
Fontanus,  a  contemporary  historian,  and  an  eyewitness 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  213 

of  what  passed,  speaking  of  the  very  different  deaths  of 
two  grand-crosses,  who  were  appointed,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  siege,  in  joint  commission  with  d'Arnaral,  to  visit 
and  take  care  of  the  ammunition  and  provisions,  and  who 
were  both  killed  in  assaults,  adds,  with  regard  to  the  Chan- 
cellor, of  whom  he  speaks,  but  does  not  name,  a  God  had 
reserved  the  last  of  the  three  for  a  shameful  death,  which 
he  richly  deserved."  However,  the  services  he  had  done 
the  Order,  for  so  many  years,  his  intrepidity  under  the 
most  exquisite  torments  of  the  rack,  the  ancient  and  val- 
uable fidelity  of  the  Portuguese  gentry  to  their  sovereigns, 
of  which  there  are  so  many  illustrious  examples  in  histo- 
ry,— all  this,  might  serve  to  balance  the  deposition  of  a 
servant.  And  perhaps  the  Chancellor  would  not  have 
been  treated  so  very  rigorously,  if,  when  the  public  safe- 
ty is  at  stake,  bare  suspicion  were  not,  as  we  may  say,  a 
crime  that  state  policy  seldom  pardons. 

But  be  that  as  it  will.  To  resume  the  relation  of  this 
famous  siege  :  Soliman,  tired  out  with  its  continuance, 
and  the  little  success  of  his  miners,  ordered  Achmet  to 
begin  his  batteries  again,  and  dispose  his  soldiers  for  a 
general  assault.  The  eyes  of  all  the  universe  were  then 
fixed  upon  Rhodes.  The  Turks  flattered  themselves, 
with  hopes  of  carrying  it,  by  storm  ;  and  the  Knights, 
who  were  reduced  to  a  small  number,  and  were  rather 
hid  and  buried,  than  fortified,  in  thelittle  ground  that  was 
left  them,  waited,  with  impatience,  for  the  succors  which 
the  Christian  princes  had  so  long  fed  them  with  the  vain 
hopes  of  sending  them,  in  order  to  raise  the  siege.  But 
the  Emperor  Charles  the  Fifth,  and  Francis  the  First, 
king  of  France,  were  so  obstinately  animated  against  one 
another,  that  they  durst  not  send  away  their  troops,  or 
divide  them  ;  and  the  other  European  princes,  most  of 
which  were  engaged  on  the  side  of  one  of  those  two  prin- 
ces, and  were  afraid  lest  their  own  territories  should  be 
invaded,  kept  their  forces  about  them,  for  fear  of  a  sur- 
prise. The  Pope  himself,  Adrian  the  Sixth,  by  name, 
a  pious,  and  indeed  learned,  pontiff,  but  of  no  great  ca- 
pacity, and  entirely  devoted  to  the  Emperor,  being  press- 
ed by  Cardinal  Julian  de  Medecis,  an  old  Knight  of  the 


214  GREAT   EVENTS. 

Order,  to  send  his  galleys  to  Rhodes,  with  a  body  of  in- 
fantry which  then  lay  about  Rome,  the  new  Pontiff  excus- 
ed himself  from  so  doing,  under  pretence,  that,  as  he  was 
not  skilled  in  the  arts  of  government,  he  could  not  send 
away  his  troops,  while  all  Italy  was  in  arms  :  though  it  is 
very  probable,  that  he  durst  not  dispose  of  them,  without 
the  privity  and  consent  of  the  Emperor,  his  benefactor  ; 
and  that,  out  of  complaisance  to  that  Prince,  instead  of 
sending  them  to  Rhodes,  he  ordered  them  to  march  into 
the  Milanese  territory  and  Lombardy,  where  they  were 
employed  against  the  French. 

Thus  were  the  Grand-master  and  his  Knights,  after 
putting  their  whole  confidence  in  God,  left  without  any 
hopes  of  succor,  but  what  they  could  draw  from  the  Or- 
der itself.  They  were,  besides,  so  unfortunate,  as  not  to 
receive  a  considerable  convoy,  which  the  French  Knights 
sent,  in  two  ships,  from  the  port  of  Marseilles.  One  of 
these  ships,  after  a  storm  of  several  days,  was  cast  away, 
and  lost  off  Monaco  ;  and  the  other,  losing  her  masts  in 
the  same  storm,  was  stranded  on  the  coast  of  Sardinia, 
and  disabled  from  putting  to  sea.  Nor  were  the  English 
less  unfortunate.  Sir  Thomas  de  Newport,  embarking 
with  several  Knights  of  that  nation,  and  a  good  quantity 
of  provisions,  as  well  as  money,  on  board,  was  caught  in 
the  same  storm,  which  drove  him  upon  a  desert  country, 
where  he  was  stranded.  The  Chevalier  Aulamo,  of  the 
Language  of  Aragon,  and  Prior  of  St.  Martin,  was  in 
hopes  of  getting  into  the  port  of  Rhodes.  But  he  was 
met,  in  the  Archipelago,  by  some  Turkish  galleys,  and, 
after  a  Jong  engagement,  got  out  of  their  hands  with  great 
difficult^. 

The  Grand-master,  though  abandoned,  as  we  may  say, 
by  all  human  succor,  did  not  yet  abandon  himself,  nor 
despond.  This  great  man  discovered,  in  so  sad  an  ex- 
tremity, the  same  courage  which  had  carried  him  so  often 
upon  the  breach,  and  into  the  midst  of  his  enemies.  By 
his  orders,  the  KninIiN  that  rrHdrd  in  tho  adjoining  i.-lrs 
that  depended  on  Rhodes,  and  in  thr  castle  of  St.  Peter, 
quitted  them,  in  order  to  preserve  the  capital  of  the  Or- 
der, and  transported  thither,  on  board  some  light  barks 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  215 

and  little  brigantines,  all  the  soldiers,  arms,  and  provis- 
ions, they  were  masters  of.  The  Grand-master,  in  the 
extremity  to  which  he  was  reduced,  took  this  step,  in 
hopes  of  one  day  recovering  those  islands,  if  he  could 
but  maintain  his  ground  in  Rhodes.  But,  as  they  had 
drawn  the  like  succors  from  these  several  places,  before, 
this  last,  the  only  hopes  the  Knights  had  left,  betrayed 
their  weakness  more  than  it  augmented  their  forces. 
The  Grand-master  despatched,  at  the  same  time,  the 
Chevalier  Farfan,  of  the  Language  of  England,  into  Can- 
dia,  to  endeavor  to  get  provisions  there  ;  and  sent  an- 
other Knight,  called  Des  Reaux,  to  Naples,  to  hasten  the 
succors,  which  were  retarded  by  the  rigor  of  the  season. 
But  all  his  endeavors  were  fruitless  ;  and  one  would  have 
thought,  that  the  winds  and  the  sea  had  conspired,  for  the 
loss  of  the  isle  of  Rhodes,  and  of  this  armament, — the 
last  supply  of  which  the  besieged  had  any  hopes. 

The  Turks,  to  whom  some  deserters  had  represented 
these  succors  as  much  stronger  and  nearer  at  hand  than 
they  were,  in  reality,  used  their  endeavors  to  prevent 
them.  Achmet,  who,  under  Soliman's  orders,  had  the 
whole  direction  of  the  siege,  planted  a  battery  of  seven- 
teen cannon  against  the  bastion  of  Italy,  and  completed 
the  ruin  of  all  the  fortifications.  He  afterwards  ran  his 
trenches  to  the  foot  of  the  wall  ;  and,  to  secure  his  men 
fro"m  being  galled  by  the  artillery  of  the  place,  he  cover- 
ed these  new  works  with  thick  planks  and  great  beams 
of  timber.  His  pioneers  afterwards  pierced  through  the 
wall,  and  ran  their  mines  as  far  as  the  intrenchments  ; 
and  then,  digging  away  the  earth  that  supported  them, 
they  made  them  sink,  so  that  the  Knights  were  forced  to 
retire  further  within  the  town  :  and  the  Grand-master, 
who  never  stirred  from  the  attacks,  seeing  the  Infidels 
masters  of  the  best  part  of  the  platform  of  the  bastion, 
was  forced  to  demolish  the  church  of  St.  Pantaleon,  and 
the  chapel  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  Victoire,*  to  hinder  the 
Turks  from  making  lodgements  there  ;  and  he  employ- 
ed the  materials  of  those  two  churches,  in  making  new 

*  Our  Lady  of  the  Victory. 


216  GREAT  EVENTS. 

barricadoes  and  intrenchinents,  to  hinder  the  enemy  kom 
penetrating  further  into  the  place. 

The  Turkish  General  had  the  same  success,  at  the 
bastion  of  England.  After  his  artillery  had  played  upon 
it,  for  several  days,  and  had  demolished  the  walls  and 
ruined  the  fortifications,  several  Knights  proposed  to 
abandon  it,  first  filling  the  mines,  that  were  under  it,  with 
powder,  in  order  to  blow  up  the  Infidels,  who  should 
throw  themselves  into  it.  But  it  was  remonstrated,  in 
the  council  of  war,  held  on  this  subject,  that,  in  the  ex- 
tremity to  which  they  were  reduced,  the  saving  of  the 
place  depended  entirely  on  prolonging  the  siege,  so  as  to 
allow  time  for  the  succors,  they  expected,  to  arrive  ; 
and  that  therefore  there  was  not  a  foot  of  ground,  but 
what  was  to  be  disputed  with  the  enemy,  as  long  as  pos- 
sible. This  last  opinion  prevailed  ;  and,  though  the  bas- 
tion was  entirely  ruined,  by  mines  and  the  fire  of  the 
artillery,  nevertheless,  the  Chevalier  Binde  Malicome 
offered  himself,  generously,  to  defend  it ;  and,  in  spite 
of  the  continual  attacks  of  the  Turks,  he  maintained  it, 
with  great  glory,  to  the  very  end  of  the  siege. 

The  Turks  did  not  allow  any  more  rest  to  the  Knights 
who  defended  the  posts  of  Italy  and  Spain.  They  at- 
tacked the  first,  on  the  twenty-second  of  November 
They  had  seized,  as  has  been  already  observed,  on  the 
best  part  of  the  platform  of  Italy  ;  the  Knights  had 
scarcely  a  third  of  it  left  ;  and  both  of  them  were  buried, 
as  it  vvero,  in  subterraneous  works,  and  divided  only  by 
planks  and  beams  from  one  another.  The  Turks,  seeing 
themselves  in  possession  of  the  greater  part  of  this  plat- 
form, undertook  to  drive  the  Knights  entirely  out  of  it.  A 
battalion  of  the  Infidels,  on  the  side  next  the  sea,  mounted 
to  the  assault,  while  another  body  attacked  their  intrench- 
inents, sword  in  hand.  But  they  met  with  the  same 
valor  and  resistance,  in  all  places  ;  and,  though  the  Knights 
had  lost  abundance  of  men,  in  these  bloody  attacks, 
they  yri  repulsed  the  Infidels,  and  obliged  tliem  to  retire. 

It  was,  however,  only  to  return,  a  few  days  afterwards, 
in  much  greater  numhers.  The  attack  was  preceded  by 
a  mine,  uhirh  they  sprung  under  the  bastion  of  Spain. 


SIEGI.  AND  SURRENDER   OF  RHODES.  217 

It  made  a  great  panel  of  the  wall  fall  down  ;  and,  in 
order  to  hinder  the  Knights  from  making  new  intrench- 
ments,  behind  this  breach,  a  battery  of  their  largest  can- 
non played,  for  a  whole  night  and  day,  without  intermis- 
sion, upon  this  place.  The  Turks,  upon  the  thirtieth 
of  November,  returned,  at  daybreak,  to  the  assault, 
whilst  Peri  Basha,  at  the  same  time,  attacked  the  Italian 
platform,  again.  But  the  main  effort  of  the  Infidels  was 
made  against  the  bastion  of  Spain.  The  Turks,  in  great 
numbers,  and  sustained  by  the  bravest  troops  of  their 
army,  advanced  boldly  up  to  the  breach,  notwithstanding 
all  the  fire  of  the  artillery  and  small  shot  of  the  besieged. 
Their  great  numbers  prevailed  over  all  the  courage  of 
the  Rhodians,  and  they  penetrated  as  far  as  the  intrench- 
ments,  which  the  Bailiff  Martinengo  had  made,  before 
he  was  wounded  :  but,  at  the  sound  of  the  bells,  which 
proclaimed  the  danger  that  the  city  was  in,  the  Grand- 
master, the  Prior  of  St.  Giles,  and  the  Bailiff  Martinen- 
go, who  was  not  yet  quite  cured  of  his  wound,  ran,-  from 
different  places,  with  the  greatest  part  of  the  Knights  and 
inhabitants  ;  none  of  them  observing  any  order,  but  what 
his  courage,  and  perhaps  his  despair,  dictated  ;  and  all  of 
them,  regardless  how  they  exposed  their  lives,  rushed 
with  a  kind  of  fury  upon  the  Turks.  The  Infidels  did 
not  show  less  courage  ;  they  grappled  with  one  another 
with  equal  advantage,  and  without  being  able  to  discover 
what  the  success  sof  this  terrible  engagement  would  be. 
Happily  for  Rhodes,  there  fell  a  prodigious  rain  ;  floods 
of  water  fell  from  the  skies,  and  washed  away  the  earth 
that  served  as  a  shoulder-work  to  the  trenches  of  the  In- 
fidels. This  laying  them  open  to  the  artillery  of  the  post 
of  Auvergne,  it  played  furiously,  and  killed  a  great  num- 
ber of  them  ;  and  the  other  batteries,  which  they  had 
placed  upon  the  mills  of  Cosquin,  and  the  musketeers  of 
the  Knights,  firing  continually  upon  the  breach,  and  in  the 
midst  of  the  enemy  that  was  lodged  there,  made  so  hor- 
rible a  slaughter  of  them,  that  such  as  could  escape  the 
fury  of  the  cannon  ran,  as  fast  as  possible,  to  their 
camp  and  trenches,  notwithstanding  all  the  menaces  of 
their  officers. 

19  9.  E. 


218  GREAT  EVENTS. 

The  Turks  were  not  more  successful,  in  their  attack 
of  the  platform  of  Italy.  Peri  Basha,  who  commanded 
at  it,  after  losing  his  bravest  men,  and  hearing  of  the  ill 
success  of  the  attack  on  the  Spanish  bastion,  seeing, 
likewise,  his  troops  almost  drowned  with  rain,  ordered 
the  retreat  to  be  sounded.  Such  was  the  success  of  a 
day,  which  would  have  been  the  last  for  the  liberty  of 
Rhodes,  had  not  the  Grand-master  and  his  Knights  pre- 
served it,  by  neglecting  their  own  preservation,  and 
bravely  exposing  their  lives,  without  the  least  reserve. 

Soliman  could  not  see  his  troops  coming  back,  in  dis- 
order, and  in  a  downright  flight,  without  falling  into  a 
passion.  He  had  been  almost  six  months,  with  two 
hundred  thousand  men,  before  the  place,  without  being 
able  to  take  it.  The  vexation  he  felt,  and  his  apprehen- 
sions that  the  Christian  princes  might  at  last  unite  their 
forces,  in  order  to  oblige  him  to  raise  the  siege,  made 
him  shut  himself  up,  some  days,  in  his  tent,  without  suf- 
fering-any  of  his  captains  to  come  near  him.  No  one  durst 
offer  to  come  into  his  presence  ;  no  one  but  Peri  Basha, 
his  old  governor,  who  had  a  particular  privilege  to  enter, 
durst  venture  to  speak  to  him.  That  subtle  minister,  in 
order  to  bring  him  to  a  better  temper,  represented  to 
him,  that  the  troops  were  lodged  upon  the  principal  bas- 
tions ;  that  he  was  in  possession  of  part  of  the  place  ;  that 
another  assault  would  carry  it ;  that  they  had,  indeed,  to 
deal  with  a  set  of  desperate  men,  who  would  suffer  them- 
selves to  be  all  killed,  to  a  man,  rather  than  surrender  ; 
but  that  the  Knights  were  reduced  to  a  small  number  ; 
that  the  inhabitants,  who  were  most  of  them  Greeks,  had 
not  the  same  courage,  nor  indeed  the  same  interest,  to 
be  obstinate  in  the  defence  of  the  place  ;  and  that  he  was 
persuaded  they  would  not  reject  a  composition,  which 
offered  them  security  for  their  lives  and  fortunes.  The 
Sultan  approved  this  advice,  and  ordered  him  to  put  it  in 
execution. 

Peri  ordered  several  letters,  in  the  Grand  Signior's 
name,  to  be  thrown  into  the  place,  exhorting  the  inhabi- 
tants to  submit  to  his  empire,  and  threatening  them,  at  the 
same  time,  with  the  most  cruel  treatment,  themselves, 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  219 

their  wives,  and  their  children,  if  they  should  be  taken 
by  storm.  The  Basha  afterwards  employed  a  Genoese, 
that  happened  to  be  in  Soliman's  camp,  who,  advancing 
near  the  bastion  of  Auvergne,  desired  leave  to  speak. 
This  Genoese,  whose  name  was  Hieronymo  Monilio, 
affecting  a  feigned  compassion,  said,  that  as  he  was  a 
Christian,  he  could  not  bear  to  see  the  approaching  loss 
and  massacre  of  so  many  Christians,  his  brethren,  who 
would  be  overwhelmed  with  the  formidable  power  of 
Soliman  ;  that  their  fortifications  were  destroyed,  their 
intrenchments  ruined,  and  the  enemy  already  lodged  with- 
in the  place  ;  that  they  ought,  in  prudence,  to  prevent 
the  dismal  consequences  of  a  town's  being  carried  by 
storm  ;  and  that  it  would  not,  perhaps,  be  impossible  to 
obtain  a  sure  and  even  an  honorable  composition  from 
Soliman.  The  commander  of  the  bastion,  by  the  Grand- 
master's order,  answered  him,  that  the  Knights  of  St. 
John  never  treated  with  the  Infidels,  but  with  sword  in 
hand  ;  and,  lest  his  artful  discourse  should  make  any  im- 
pression upon  the  minds  of  the  inhabitants,  he  ordered 
him  to  retire.  This  cunning  agent  of  the  Basha,  far 
from  being  discouraged,  returned,  two  days  afterwards, 
to  the  same  place,  under  pretence  of  having  letters  to  de- 
liver to  a  Genoese,  that  was  in  the  place.  But  the  com- 
mandant ordering  him  to  retire,  he  declared,  that  he 
brought  a  packet  from  Soliman  to  the  Grand-master. 
This  was  a  new  pretext  for  entering  into  a  negotiation  ; 
but  the  Grand-master  eluded  it,  by  refusing  to  receive  it, 
from  the  apprehensions  he  was  under,  that  the  bare  ap- 
pearances of  a  treaty  would  enervate  the  courage  of  the 
soldiers  and  inhabitants  ;  and,  in  order  to  oblige  this  ne 
gotiator  to  go  off,  they  fired  some  musket-shot  at  him. 
An  Albanian  deserter  from  the  city,  who  had  afterwards 
entered  into  Soliman's  service,  was  the  next  to  act  bis 
part ;  and,  after  the  usual  signals,  desired  admittance  into 
the  place,  in  order  to  present  the  Grand-master  with  a 
letter,  which  he  was  to  deliver  to  him  from  the  Sultan  ; 
but  he  was  not  better  received  than  the  Genoese.  The 
Grand-master,  through  fear  of  discouraging  his  troops, 
refused  to  give  him  audience,  and  declared  to  him,  that 


220  GREAT   EVENTS. 

they  would,  for  the  future,  without  any  regard  to  signals 
of  parley,  or  the  character  of  envoys,  fire  upon  all  that 
should  offer  to  come  near  the  place. 

Nevertheless,  the  frequent  arrival  of  these  agents,  and 
the  Grand  Signior's  letters,  which  the  Basha  had  taken 
care  to  throw  into  the  city,  did  not  fail  to  produce  the 
desired  effect.  The  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants,  being 
of  the  Greek  religion,  began  to  hold  private  meetings  be- 
tween themselves  ;  the  most  mutinous,  or  rather  the 
most  timorous  and  cowardly,  represented,  that  most  of 
them  had  lost  their  relations  and  friends,  in  the  many 
assaults  that  had  been  given  ;  that  they,  themselves, 
were  on  the  brink  of  ruin  ;  that  the  enemy  was  intrench- 
ed within  the  place,  and' that,  at  the  very  first  attack, 
they  should  see  themselves  overwhelmed  with  the  for- 
midable multitude  of  the  Infidels  ;  that  they  had,  for  a 
long  time,  been  resolved  to  sacrifice  their  own  lives,  but 
could  not  see  the  dishonor  and  slavery  of  their  wives  and 
children,  without  the  most  piercing  affliction  ;  that  they 
might  prevent  such  a  terrible  calamity,  by  surrendering 
upon  good  terms  ;  and,  after  all,  that,  whatever  the 
Knights  might  allege,  the  example  of  so  many  Christian 
states,  that  lived  peaceably  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Turks,  was  a  plain  proof,  that  they  might  do  the  same, 
and  that  they,  by  paying  a  small  tribute,  might  also  save 
both  their  religion  and  their  fortunes. 

Such  discourses  as  these,  repeated  at  different  meet- 
ings, determined  the  most  considerable  of  the  inhabitants 
to  apply  to  their  Metropolitan.  They  begged  him  to 
take  pity  on  his  people,  and  to  represent  to  the  Grand- 
master, that,  if  he  did  not  immediately  treat  with  the 
Grand  Signior,  they  must  necessarily  be  the  first  victims 
of  the  fury  of  the  victorious  soldiers,  and  that  he  himself 
would  see  the  churches  profaned,  the  precious  relics  of 
the  saints  trampled  under  foot,  and  the  women  and  vir- 
gins exposed  to  the  brutality  of  the  Infidels.  The  Prelate 
entered  into  these  just  considerations,  and  laid  the  remon- 
strances and  request  of  his  people  before  the  Grand-mas- 
ho  at  first  rejected  the  propositions  of  the  Metro- 
politan with  a  noble  disdain,  and  declared  to  him,  that 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  221 

himself  and  his  Knights  had,  when, they  shut  up  them- 
selves in  Rhodes,  resolved  to  be  buried  upon  the  breach, 
and  in  the  last  intrenchments  of  the  place,  and  that  he 
hoped  the  inhabitants  would  follow  their  example,  and 
show  the  same  courage. 

But  the  Metropolitan  found  them  in  a  very  different 
disposition.  Fear,  on  the  one  side,  and  a  desire  of 
peace,  on  the  other,  had  obtained  an  ascendancy  over 
them.  New  deputies  were  sent  back,  the  day  following, 
and  applied  directly  to  the  Grand-master.  They  de- 
clared to  him,  that,  unless  he  took  some  care  to  pre- 
serve the  inhabitants,  they  themselves  could  not  help 
taking  the  most  proper  measures  to  secure  the  lives  and 
honor  of  their  wives  and  children. 

The  Grand-master,  justly  fearing  that  despair  might 
occasion  a  fatal  division,  that  would  hasten  the  loss  of 
the  place,  referred  them  to  the  council.  Whilst  they 
were  deliberating  about  this  important  matter,  three  mer- 
chants knocked  at  the  door  of  the  council-house.  They 
were  let  in,  and  presented  a  petition,  signed  by  the  prin- 
cipal inhabitants,  in  which  they  besought  the  Order  to 
make  some  provision  for  the  safety  of  their  wives  and 
children  ;  insinuating,  at  the  end  of  the  petition,  that,  if 
they  should  have  no  regard  thereto,  they  should  think 
themselves  obliged,  by  all  laws,  both  Divine  and  human, 
not  to  abandon  them  to  the  fury  and  brutality  of  the  Infi- 
dels. The  Grand-master,  before  any  answer  was  given 
them,  ordered  the  Knights,  who  commanded  at  the  sev- 
eral posts,  to  be  called  m,  in  order  to  learn,  from  them,  a 
true  and  exact  account  of  the  state  and  forces  of  the 
place.  He  addressed  himself  particularly  to  the  Grand 
Prior  of  St.  Giles  and  the  Bailiff  Martinengo,  who  had, 
a  few  days  before,  taken  arms  again,  and  resumed  the 
defence  of  the  place.  These  two  great  men,  who  had 
so  many  times  exposed  their  lives  on  the  most  dangerous 
occasions,  declared,  one  after  the  other,  that  they  thought 
themselves  obliged,  both  in  conscience  and  honor,  to 
represent  to  the  assembly,  that  the  place  was  not  any 
longer  tenable  ;  that  the  Turks  had  advanced  their  works 
above  forty  paces  forwards,  and  above  thirty  crosswise, 
19* 


222  GREAT   EVENTS. 

into  the  city  ;  that  they  were  fortified  there,  in  such  a 
manner,  that  they  could  no  longer  feed  themselves  with 
the  hopes  of  driving  them  out,  or  that  they  themselves 
could  retire  further  back,  in  order  to  make  new  intrench- 
ments  ;  that  all  the  pioneers,  and  the  best  of  the  soldiers, 
were  killed  ;  that  they  themselves  could  not  be  ignorant 
how  many  Knights  the  Order  had  lost ;  that  the  town  was 
equally  in  want  of  ammunition  and  provisions  ;  and  that, 
without  a  speedy  and  powerful  succor,  they  could  see  no 
resource,  and  had  even  reason  to  fear,  that,  at  the  first 
attack,  the  Christians  would  be  borne  down  by  the  formi- 
dable power  and  vast  numbers  of  the  Infidels. 

All  the  council,  upon  the  report  of  two  captains,  so 
brave  in  their  persons  and  so  greatly  skilled  in  the  arts 
of  war,  were  of  opinion,  that  they  should  enter  into  a 
treaty  with  Soliman.  The  Grand-master  was  the  only 
person  that  differed  from  them,  in  that  respect,  who, 
without  abating  any  thing  of  his  usual  constancy  and  mag- 
nanimity, represented  to  them,  that,  in  the  whole  course 
of  so  many  ages,  as  the  Order  had  been  making  war  upon 
the  Infidels,  the  Knights  had,  in  the  most  perilous  occa- 
sions, always  preferred  a  holy  and  glorious  death,  before 
a  frail  and  precarious  life  ;  that  he  was  ready  to  set  them 
an  example,  and  begged  of  them,  before  they  took  so 
grievous  a  step,  to  reflect  once  more  upon  it,  in  the  most 
serious  manner. 

The  principal  persons  of  the  council  replied,  that,  if 
their  own  particular  lives  were  concerned  in  the  case, 
they  would  all  follow  his  example,  and  freely  die,  by  his 
side  ;  that  they  were  ready  to  sacrifice  their  lives  ;  that 
they  had  devoted  them  to  God,  when  they  took  the  hab- 
it ;  but  that  the  safety  of  the  inhabitants  was  the  business 
in  question  ;  that,  if  the  .Infidels  should  carry  the  place, 
by  storm,  and  enter  it,  sword  in  hand,  they  would  force 
the  women  and  children,  and  all  weak  persons,  to  re- 
nounce the  faith  ;  that  they  would  make  the  most  of  the 
^habitants  either  slaves  or  renegadoes  ;  and  that  the 
churches,  and  particularly  the  relics,  which  had  so  long 
been  the  object  of  their  veneration,  at  Rhodes,  would  be 
profaned  by  the  Infidels,  and  made  the  subject  of  their 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  223 

contempt  and  raillery.  The  Grand-master  yielded,  at 
length,  to  these  pious  considerations,  and  they  resolved, 
at  the  first  overtures  of  peace  that  the  Sultan  should 
make,  to  give  an  answer,  and  enter  upon  a  negotiation. 

The  Grand  Signior,  uneasy  at  the  thoughts  of  succors, 
a  report  of  which  the  Knights  had  taken  care  to  spread 
abroad,  and  unable  either  to  take  the  place,  or,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  raise  the  siege  consistent  with  his  honor, 
endeavored,  by  new  propositions,  to  shake  the  resolution 
and  constancy  of  the  Knights  :  they  planted,  by  his  or- 
ders, a  flag  on  the  top  of  the  church  of  St.  Mary,  and  in 
a  quarter  called  the  Lymonitres. 

The  Grand-master  thereupon  ordered  another  to  be 
fixed  upon  a  mill  that  was  at  the  gate  of  Cosquin.  Upon 
this  signal,  two  Turks,  who,  by  their  dress,  seemed  to  be 
considerable  officers,  came  out  of  the  trenches,  and  ad- 
vanced towards  the  gate  ;  they  were  met  there  by  the 
Prior  of  St.  Giles  and  the  Bailiff  Martinengo,  to  whom 
they  delivered  only  a  letter  from  Soliman  to  the  Grand- 
master, without  speaking  a  word.  The  letter  contained 
a  summons  to  surrender  the  place,  with  advantageous  of- 
fers, provided  they  should  deliver  it  up,  immediately,  and 
threats  of  putting  all  to  the  sword,  if  they  delayed  it  any 
longer.  The  common  council  of  the  Order  and  the 
great  council  were  for  hearing  the  conditions  which  the 
Sultan  offered  :  they  agreed  to  give  hostages,  on  both 
sides.  The  Order  sent,  as  deputies  to  Soliman,  Sir 
Anthony  Grolee,  called  Passim,  and  Robert  Perrucey, 
Judge  of  Rhodes,  who  both  spoke  the  vulgar  Greek,  with 
facility.  The  Turks,  on  their  side,  sent  into  Rhodes,  a 
nephew  of  the  General  Achmet,  and  also  one  of  Soli- 
man's  interpreters,  in  whom  that  Prince  put  entire  confi- 
dence. The  Chevalier  de  Grolee  and  his  brother  dep- 
uty were  admitted  to  an  audience  of  the  Grand  Sig- 
nior, who  told  them,  that  he  was  disposed  to  let  them  go 
quietly  out  of  the  island  and  the  East,  provided  they 
would  immediately  surrender  up  to  him,  Rhodes,  Fort 
St.  Peter,  Lango,  and  the  other  little  islands  of  the  Or- 
der ;  but  that  if,  from  a  resolution  of  making  a  rash  de- 
fence, they  should  be  obstinate  in  attempting  to  hold  out 


224  GREAT  EVENTS. 

any  longer,  against  his  formidable  power,  he  would  de- 
stroy all  before  him,  with  fire  and  sword.  The  two  dep- 
uties desired  to  return  into  the  place,  to  communicate  his 
intentions  to  the  Grand-master  and  the  council ;  but  the 
Turks  sent  back  Perrucey,  only,  with  orders  to  bring  a 
decisive  answer,  immediately  ;  and  General  Achmet  kept 
the  Chevalier  de  Grolee  in  his  tent,  whom  he  treated 
very  honorably,  and  owned  to  him,  at  table,  in  the  heat 
of  the  entertainment,  that  the  Sultan,  his  master,  had  lost, 
at  that  siege,  forty-four  thousand  men,  who  had  fallen  by 
the  arms  of  the  Knights,  besides  almost  as  considerable  a 
number,  that  had  died  of  sickness  and  cold,  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Winter. 

During  these  preliminaries  of  the  negotiation,  a  com 
pany  of  young  fellows,  who  were  some  of  the  most  in- 
considerable of  the  townsmen,  and  who  had  not  been 
consulted  in  the  petition,  which  the  principal  inhabitants 
had  presented  to  the  Grand-master,  ran  in  a  tumultuous 
manner  to  the  palace,  to  complain  that  they  were  treating 
with  the  enemy  without  their  consent,  and  that  would  be 
delivering  them  up  to  a  perfidious  nation,  that  gloried  in 
breaking  their  faith  with  Christians,  and  that  they  all 
chose  to  die,  with  their  weapons  in  their  hands,  rather 
than  be  cut  to  pieces,  after  the  capitulation,  as  the  inhab- 
itants of  Belgrade  had  been.  The  Grand-master,  who 
was  used  to  the  bravadoes  and  vanity  of  the  Greeks,  an- 
swered them,  with  great  moderation,  that  prudence  did 
not  allow  him  to  publish  the  motives  of  the  negotiation, 
for  fear  the  Grand  Signior  should  be  informed  of  the  ill 
condition  of  the  place,  and  break  it,  and  his  troops  make 
another  assault,  which  he  was  afraid  they  wanted  forces 
sufficient  to  sustain  ;  but  that  he  was  exceedingly  pleased 
to  find  them  so  well  disposed  to  defend  their  country  ; 
that  they  should  see  him  always  at  their  head,  and  ready 
to  six  (1  the  last  drop  of  his  blood  for  the  preservation  of 
I'lnre  :  he  desired  them,  only,  to  remember  to  bring 
thither,  on  the  first  occasion  that  might  ofler  itself,  the 
same  courage,  and  all  tin;  resolution  of  uhirh  they  boast- 
ed in  their  discourse,  and  in  the  presence  of  the*  Sov- 
ereign. 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  225 

\ 

As  no  great  account  was  made  of  the  idle  talk  of  a 
troop  of  braggadocios,  the  Grand-master  and  the  council 
being  informed  by  one  of  their  deputies  of  the  Sultan'0 
disposition,  thought  fit  to  despatch  two  other  ambassadors 
to  him,  and  chose  for  that  employment  Don  Raimond 
Marquet  and  Don  Lopez  Cepas,  both  Spaniards,  who, 
in  the  audience  they  had  of  the  Grand  Signior,  demand- 
ed of  him  a  truce,  for  three  days,  in  order  to  regulate  the 
capitulation,  and  adjust  the  several  interests  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, who  were  partly  Latins  and  partly  Greeks. 

But  that  Prince,  being  always  uneasy  at  the  reports 
spread  in  his  army,  of  an  approaching  succor,  rejected 
the  proposition  of  a  truce  ;  and,  in  order  to  determine  the 
Grand-master  to  treat  immediately,  he  commanded  his 
officers  to  begin  firing  again,  and  prepare  every  thing  for 
a  general  assault.  He  sent  back,  at  the  same  time,  one 
of  the  new  envoys,  but  kept  the  other,  with  a  design,  no 
doubt,  of  resuming  the  negotiation,  if  he  did  not  succeed 
immediately  in  the  attack. 

The  batteries  began  to  fire,  on  both  sides,  but  not  so 
furiously  on  the  part  of  the  Knights,  who  reserved  the 
little  powder  left  them  for  the  assaults  they  were  unavoid- 
ably to  stand.  The  Grand-master,  seeing  the  attack 
begin  again,  sent  for  the  inhabitants,  who  had  spoken  to 
him  with  so  much  ostentation  of  their  courage  ;  and  told 
them,  that  now  was  the  time  of  their  giving  him  proofs  of 
it ;  and  an  order  was  issued  out  in  his  name,  and  publish- 
ed with  sound  of  trumpet,  to  all  the  citizens  to  repair  im- 
mediately to  the  advanced  posts,  with  a  strict  injunction 
not  to  quit  them,  either  day  or  night,  under  pain  of  death. 
The  townsmen  obeyed  this  order,  for  some  days  ;  but  a 
certain  young  man,  terrified  at  the  danger  to  which  he 
was  exposed,  from  the  enemy's  artillery,  stealing  home 
in  the  night,  the  Grand-master  sent  to  take  him,  and  the 
council  of  war  condemned  him  to  be  hanged,  as  an  ex- 
ample to  the  rest,  and  in  order  to  keep  up  discipline. 

Though  all  the  fortifications  of  Rhodes  were  ruined, 
and  the  city  was,  in  a  manner,  no  more  than  a  heap  of 
stones  and  rubbish,  yet  the  Knights  still  kept  their  ground, 
in  the  barbacan,  or  faussebraye,  of  the  bastion  of  Spain, 


226  GREAT   EVENTS. 

where  the  Grand-master  himself  lodged,  in  order  to  take 
the  better  care  of  its  defence.  The  Turks  attacked  it  on 
the  seventeenth  of  December. 

The  engagement  was  very  bloody  and  obstinate.  They 
fought,  almost  the  whole  day,  on  both  sides,  with  equal 
animosity.  The  Grand-master,  and  the  few  Knights  he 
had  left,  ran,  as  we  may  say,  to  meet  their  wounds  ; 
and,  rather  than  survive  the  loss  of  the  place,  went  in 
quest  of  death,  that  seemed  to  fly  from  them.  In  fine, 
they  exerted  themselves  so  nobly,  that,  after  making  a 
terrible  slaughter  of  the  enemy,  they  forced  them  to  re- 
tire. But  the  Infidels,  animated  by  the  reproaches  of 
the  Sultan,  returned,  the  next  day,  to  the  assault,  and 
came  on,  in  such  vast  numbers,  that  the  Knights,  borne 
down  by  their  multitude,  were  forced  to  abandon  the 
work,  and  threw  themselves  into  the  city,  to  defend 
it,  to  the  utmost  extremity,  and  bury  themselves  in  its 
ruins. 

The  townsmen,  terrified  at  the  approaching  danger, 
abandoned  their  posts,  and'  retired,  one  after  another. 
The  Grand-master  and  his  Knights  were  forced  to  make, 
alone,  the  ordinary  guard  of  the  place  ;  and,  if  those  noble 
soldiers  of  Jesus  Christ  had  not  kept  upon  the  breach,  it 
would  have  been  surprised,  and  carried  by  assault.  In 
fine,  all  the  inhabitants  came,  in  a  body,  to  beseech  the 
Grand-master  to  resume  the  negotiation,  and  entreated 
him  to  give  them  leave  to  send,  along  with  his  ambassa- 
dors to  the  camp,  two  deputies  of  their  own,  to  take  care 
of  their  interests  in  the  capitulation.  The  Grand-master 
consented  to  it  ;  and  the  body  of  the  townsmen  named 
Peter  Singlifico  and  Nicholas  Vergati,  when  the  Cheva- 
lier de  Grolee,  who  had  renewed  the  negotiation  with 
General  Achmet,  conducted  them  to  the  camp,  and  de- 
sired liim  to  present  them  to  the  Grand  Signior.  But, 
before  they  were  admitted  to  his  audience,  the  Grand- 
master, in  some  hopes,  though  they  were  very  uncertain, 
of  a  succor,  and  with  design  to  spin  out  the  negotiation, 
had  directed  him  to  show  Achmet  an  old  treaty  which 
Sultan  Bajazet  had  made  with  the  Grand-master  d'Au- 
busson  ;  in  which,  he  lays  his  curse  upon  any  of  his  sue- 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  227 

cessors,  that  should  break  the  peace  he  had  concluded 
with  the  Knights  of  St.  John.  The  Grand-master  gave 
this  instrument  to  his  ambassador,  that  he  might  feel  if 
Soliman,  who  was  a  zealous  observer  of  his  law,  could 
be  prevailed  with,  in  consideration  of  a  considerable  sum 
of  money,  to  raise  the  siege.  But  Achmet,  as  soon  as 
he  cast  his  eyes  on  the  paper,  tore  it  to  pieces,  trod  it 
under  his  feet,  and  drove  the  ambassador  and  deputies 
of  the  people  from  his  presence.  In  fine,  having  no 
succor  to  hope  for,  nor  forces  enough  to  defend  the  city, 
the  Grand-master  sent  the  ambassador  and  deputies  to  the 
camp,  who,  after  making  their  compliments  to  the  Grand 
Signior,  set  themselves  with  Achmet  to  draw  up  the  ca- 
pitulation, the  principal  articles  whereof  contained,  that 
the  churches  should  not  be  profaned,  nor  the  inhabitants 
obliged  to  deliver  up  their  children  to  be  made  Janiza- 
ries ;  that  they  should  be  allowed  the  free  exercise  of 
the  Christian  religion  ;  that  the  people  should  be  exempt 
from  taxes  for  five  years  ;  that  all  who  would  go  out  of 
the  island  should  have  leave  to  do  so  ;  that  if  the  Grand- 
master and  the  Knights  should  not  have  vessels  enough  to 
transport  them  to  Candia,  they 'should  be  furnished  with 
them,  by  the  Turks  ;  that  they  should  be  allowed  twelve 
days'  time,  reckoning  from  that  of  signing  the  treaty,  to 
put  their  effects  on  board  ;  that  they  might  carry  away 
the  relics  of  the  saints,  the  consecrated  vessels  of  the 
church  of  St.  John,  the  ornaments,  their  movables,  their 
records  and  writings,  and  all  the  cannon  that  they  used 
to  employ  on  board  their  galleys  ;  that  all  the  forts  of  the 
isle  of  Rhodes,  and  the  other  isles  belonging  to  the  Order, 
and  that  of  the  castle  of  St.  Peter,  should  be  delivered 
up  to  the  Turks  ;  that,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  execu- 
tion of  this  treaty,  the  Turkish  army  should  remove  to 
some  miles  distance  ;  that,  whilst  it  lay  at  that  distance, 
the  Sultan  should  send  four  thousand  Janizaries,  under 
the  command  of  their  Aga,  to  take  possession  of  the 
place  ;  and  that  the  Grand-master,  as  a  security  of  his 
word,  should  give  twenty-five  Knights  in  hostage,  among 
which  were  to  be  two  grand-crosses,  with  twenty-five  of 
the  principal  burgesses  of  the  town.  This  treaty  being 


228  GREAT  EVENTS. 

signed  by  the  ambassador  and  deputies,  on  one  side,  and 
by  General  Achmet,  in  the  Sultan's  name,  and  ratified 
by  the  Grand-master,  and  the  lords  of  the  council,  the 
hostages  agreed  on  repaired  to  the  camp,  and  the  Aga 
of  the  Janizaries  entered  at  the  same  time  into  the  town, 
with  a  company  of  his  soldiers,  and  took  possession  of  it. 

Whilst  they  were  employed,  on  both  sides,  in  execu- 
ting the  treaty,  they  saw  a  numerous  fleet,  off  at  sea, 
standing  in  for  the  island,  under  full  sail,  and  with  a 
favorable  wind.  '  The  Turks,  who  were  always  uneasy, 
on  account  of  the  succors  that  the  Christians  had  so  long 
expected,  made  no  question  but  they  were  ships  of  the 
princes  of  the  West,  coming  to  raise  the. siege.  They 
immediately  ran  to  arms.  Soliman  and  his  generals  were 
in  great  pain  ;  but  the  fleet  drawing  near  the  coast,  they 
discovered  the  crescent  in  their  flags  ;  and,  after  the 
troops  on  board  the  fleet  were  landed,  they  found  that 
they  came  from  the  frontiers  of  Persia,  whither  Soli- 
man, seeing  his  soldiers  disheartened,  by  so  many  unsuc- 
cessful attacks,  had,  in  hopes  that  fresh  troops  might  be- 
have themselves  with  more  ardor  in  the  assaults,  sent 
orders  to  Ferhat  Basha,'  to  bring  them  with  the  utmost 
diligence  he  could.  It  is  to  be  presumed,  that,  if  these 
fresh  troops  had  landed  sooner,  the  Knights  would  not 
have  made  so  honorable  a  composition  with  the  Sultan  ; 
but,  as  they  had  begun  to  execute  the  capitulation,  Soli- 
man would  not  make  any  advantage  of  this  succor,  nor 
fail  in  the  performance  of  his  word. 

Two  days  after  the  treaty  was  signed,  General  Ach- 
met had  a  conference  with  the  Grand-master,  in  the  ditch 
of  the  post  of  Spain  ;  and,  after  several  discourses  had 
passed  between  them,  in  relation  to  the  attack  and  de- 
fence of  Rhodes,  he  told  him,  that  the  Grand  Signior 
was  desirous  to  see  him,  and  insinuated  to  him,  that  he 
ought  not  to  think  of  going  away,  without  taking  leave  of 
his  conqueror,  lest  he  should  provoke  his  anger.  The 
Grand-master,  being  apprehensive  that  he  would  be  in- 
censed at  the  long  resistance  made  to  all  his  power,  as 
well  as  on  account  of  the  prodigious  number  of  soldiers 
which  he  had  lost  at  the  siege,  was  .not  very  willing  to 


SIEGE  AND   SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  229 

deliver  himself  up  into  his  hands  ;  but  as,  on  the  other 
side,  he  was  afraid  of  furnishing  him,  by  a  refusal,  with  a 
pretence,  which  perhaps  he  wished  to  find,  of  not  keep- 
ing his  word,  this  great  man,  who  had,  during  the  siege, 
exposed  himself  to  the  greatest  dangers,  got  over  all  con- 
siderations, and  resolved  to  sacrifice  himself  once  more, 
for  the  safety  of  his  brethren.  He  came  early  the  next 
morning  into  the  quarters  to  the  entrance  of  the  Sultan's 
tent.  The  Turks,  out  of  pride  and  a  barbarous  kind  of 
grandeur,  suffered  him  to  wait  there,  almost  all  the  whole 
day,  without  offering  him  any  thing  to  eat  or  drink,  ex- 
posed to  a  severe  cold,  and  to  snow  and  hail,  which  fell 
in  abundance.  When  the  evening  was  drawing  on,  he 
was  called  in  ;  and,  clothing  him  and  the  Knights  that  at- 
tended him  with  magnificent  vests,  they  introduced  him 
to  an  audience  of  the  Sultan.  That  Prince  was  struck 
with  the  majesty  that  appeared  in  all  the  air  and  over  the 
whole  person  of  the  Grand-master,  and  told  him,  by  his 
interpreter,  by  way  of  consolation,  u  That  the  conquest 
and  loss  of  empires  were  the  ordinary  sports  of  fortune.'' 
He  added,  in  order  to  engage  so  great  a  captain  in  his 
service,  that  he  had  just  seen,  by  a  woful  experience,  the 
little  stress  that  was  to  be  laid  on  the  amity  and  alliance 
of  the  Christian  princes,  who  had  so  scandalously  aban- 
doned him  ;  and  that,  if  he  was  willing  to  embrace  his 
law,  there  was  no  post  or  dignity  in  the  whole  extent  of 
his  empire,  but  he  was  ready  to  gratify  him  with.  The 
Grand-master,  who  was  as  zealous  a  Christian  as  he  was 
a  great  captain,  after  thanking  him  for  the  good  will  he 
expressed  towards  him,  replied,  that  he  should  be  very 
unworthy  of  his  favors,  if  he  were  capable  of  accepting 
them  ;  that  so  great  a  prince  as  he  would  be  dishonored 
by  the  services  of  a  traitor  and  a  renegade  ;  and  that  all  he 
requested  of  Soliman  was,  that  he  would  be  pleased  to 
order  his  officers  not  to  give  him  any  disturbance  in  his 
going  off  and  embarcation.  Soliman  signified  to  him, 
that  he  might  go  on  with  it  quietly  ;  that  his  word  was 
inviolable  ;  and,  as  a  token  of  friendship,  though  per- 
haps out  of  ostentation  of  his  grandeur,  he  gave  him  hi* 
hand,  to  kiss. 

20  Q.  E. 


230  GREAT   EVENTS. 

In  breach,  however,  of  the  treaty,  and  the  positive 
promises  of  the  Grand  Signior,  five  days  after  the  capitu- 
lation was  signed,  some  Janizaries,  under  pretence  of  vis- 
iting their  comrades,  who,  with  their  Aga,  had  taken  pos- 
session of  the  place,  dispersed  themselves  over  it,  plun- 
dered the  first  houses  they  came  to  near  the  gate  of 
Cosquin,  broke  into  the  churches,  which  they  profaned, 
and  ransacked  the  very  tombs  of  the  Grand-masters, 
where  their  avarice  made  them  fancy  they  should  find 
treasure.  Thence  they  ran,  like  so  many  furies,  to  the 
Infirmary,  that  celebrated  monument  of  the  charity  of  the 
Knights,  drove  out  the  sick,  and  carried  off  the  plate,  in 
which  they  were  served,  and  would  have  carried  their 
violence  still  further,  if,  upon  the  Grand-master's  com- 
plaints, general  Achmet,  who  knew  the  Grand  Signior's 
intention,  had  not  sent  word  to  the  Aga,  that  his  head 
should  answer  for  the  plunder  and  extravagance  of  his 
soldiers.  Indeed,  the  Grand  Signior,  who  was  fond 
of  glory  and  jealous  of  his  reputation,  was  desirous  that 
the  Knights,  when  they  retired  into  the  various  states  of 
Christendom,  should,  with  the  news  of  the  conquest  of 
Rhodes,  carry  likewise  with  them  the  reputation  of  his 
clemency,  and  his  inviolable  observance  of  his  word  ; 
and  this,  perhaps,  might  be  the  motive  that  engaged  him, 
when  he  visited  his  new  conquest,  to  enter  into  the  Grand- 
master's palace. 

This  Prince  received  him  with  all  the  marks  of  respect 
due  to  so  potent  a  monarch.  Soliman,  in  this  visit,  so 
very  extraordinary  in  a  Grand  Signior,  accosted  him  in 
an  affable  manner,  exhorted  him  to  bear,  courageously, 
this  change  of  fortune,  and  signified  to  him,  by  Achmet, 
who  attended  him,  that  he  might  take  his  own  time  to 
embark  his  effects,  and  that,  if  the  time  stipulated  was 
not  sufficient,  he  would  readily  prolong  it.  He  retired, 
upon  this,  after  repeating  his  assurances  to  the  Grand- 
master of  an  inviolable  fidelity,  in  the  execution  of  the 
capitulation  ;  and,  turning  towards  his  General,  as  he  went 
out  of  the  palace,  "  I  cannot  help  being  concerned," 
says  he  to  him,  "  that  I  force  this  Christian,  at  his  age, 
to  go  out  of  his  house. " 


SIEGE  AND  SURRENDER  OF  RHODES.  231 

The  Grand-master  was  obliged  to  quit  it,  even  before 
the  term  agreed  on  was  expired  ;  for,  being  informed 
that  the  Sultan  was  preparing  to  set  out,  in  two  days,  for 
Constantinople,  he  did  not  think  it  proper  to  stay  in  the 
island,  exposed  to  the  mercy  of  the  officers  that  were  to 
command  there,  who  might,  perhaps,  in  the  Grand  Sig- 
nior's  absence,  value  themselves  on  giving  such  explica- 
tions to  the  treaty  as  suited  their  hatred  and  animosity 
against  the  Knights.  So  that,  not  thinking  it  safe  to  stay 
any  longer,  among  barbarians  that  were  not  over  scrupu- 
lous with  regard  to  the  law  of  nations,  he  ordered  the 
Knights,  and  such  as  would  follow  the  fortune  of  the 
Order,  to  carry,  immediately,  their  most  valuable  effects 
on  board  the  vessels  of  the  Order. 

This  dismal  embarcation  was  made  in  the  night,  with 
a  precipitation  and  disorder  that  can  hardly  be  described. 
Nothing  could  be  more  moving,  than  to  see  the  poor  cit- 
izens, loaded  with  their  goods,  and  followed  by  their 
families,  abandoning  their  country.  There  was  heard, 
on  all  sides,  a  confused  noise  of  children,  crying  ;  of 
women,  bemoaning  themselves  ;  of  men,  cursing  their  ill 
'brtune  ;  and  of  seamen,  calling  out  after  them  all.  The 
Grand-master,  alone,  wisely  dissembled  his  grief;  the 
sentiments  of  his  heart  were  not  betrayed  by  his  looks  ; 
and,  in  this  confusion,  he  gave  his  orders  with  the  same 
tranquillity,  as  if  he  had  been  only  to  send  away  a  squad- 
ron of  the  Order  to  cruise. 

The  Grand-master,  besides  the  Knights,  put  on  board 
above  four  thousand  inhabitants  of  the  island,  men,  wo- 
men, and  children,  who,  not  caring  to  stay  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  Infidels,  resolved  to  follow  the  fortune  of 
-.he  Order,  and  abandon  their  country. 

Prince  Amurath,  son  to  the  unfortunate  Zizim,*  would 

*  Zizim,  (or,  as  is  more  correct,  Djem,)  son  of  the  Sultan  Moham- 
med the  Second  and  brother  to  Bajazet,  had  warred  against  this  Sul- 
tan, and,  after  repeated  failures,  had  given  himself  into  the  power  of 
the  Hospitallers,  after  having  made  a  regular  treaty  with  them.  Zizim, 
nevertheless,  was  carried  to  France,  as  a  prisoner,  and  treated  with  the 
most  cruel  faithlessness.  He  was  finally  handed  over  to  the  Pope  ; 
and,  when  the  King  of  France  insisted  upon  his  being  given  up  to 
him,  to  be  treated  as  became  the  brother  of  a  Sultan,  and  according 


232  GREAT  EVENTS. 

gladly  have  followed  the  Grand-master,  and  had  agreed 
with  him  to  come  on  board,  with  all  his  family  ;  but  Sol- 
iman,  resolving  to  get  him*  into  his  power,  caused  him  tc 
be  watched  so  narrowly,  that,  in  spite  of  all  the  disguises 
he  put  on,  he  could  never  get  near  the  fleet,  but  was 
forced  to  hide  himself  in  the  ruins  of  some  houses  which 
the  Turkish  cannon  had  demolished.  The  Grand-mas- 
ter, not  being  able  to  save  him,  took  leave  of  the  Grand- 
Signior,  and  was  the  last  man  that  went  on  board  his 
vessel.  The  first  day  of  January,  A.  D.  1523,  all  the 
fleet,  after  his  example,  made  ready  for  sailing  ;  and  the 
few  Knights,  who  survived  this  long  and  bloody  siege, 
were  reduced  to  the  dismal  necessity  of  quitting  the  isle 
of  Rhodes,  and  the  places  and  other  islands  that  depend- 
ed on  the  Order,  and  in  which  the  Knights  of  St.  John 
of  Jerusalem  had  maintained  themselves,  with  so  much 
glory,  for  near  two  hundred  and  twenty  years. 

to  the  solemn  treaty  concluded  between  Zizim  and  the  Knights  of 
Rhodes,  Alexander  the  Sixth,  who  then  occupied  the  papal  throne,  re- 
sisted for  a  long  time,  because  the  Sultan  paid  a  large  sum  for  his 
brother's  maintenance,  and  money  was  of  great  importance  to  this 
criminal  and  licentious  Pope.  At  length,  however,  he  was  obliged  to 
yield  to  the  demands  of  the  King  of  France.  Alexander  sent  Zizim 
away,  but  not  till  he  had  poisoned  him.  Zizim  soon  died,  resisting  to 
the  last,  all  importunities  to  become  a  Christian.  Zizim  had  a  son 
who  went  to  Rhodes,  and  became  a  Christian.  According  to  Herbe- 
lot,  he  there  married,  and  had  two  sons  and  two  daughters.  He  and 
his  two  sons  were  executed,  after  the  surrender  of  Rhodes,  because 
they  would  not  abandon  the  Christian  religion.  The  two  daughters 
were  taken  by  Soliman  to  Constantinople.  The  barbarous  treatment 
of  Zizim  has  been  frequently  the  subject  of  discussion  ;  the  question 
being,  whether  the  Knights  knowingly  broke  faith  with  him,  or  wheth- 
er the  Pope  was  the  original  cause  of  his  ill  treatment.  Several  new 
sources  have  been  lately  made  use  of,  to  settle  this  question,  and  it 
•eems  that  the  Knights  are  first  of  nil  answerable  for  the  crime.  Se« 
the  article,  Zizim,  in  the  '  Biographic  Universelle.' 


THE  SACK  OF  ROME.  233 


THE  SACK  OF  ROME,  IN  1527. 

DESCRIBED  BY  JAMES  BONAPARTE,  AN  EYEWITNESS. 

THE  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  contained,  in  an 
uncommon  degree,  the  elements  of  civil  fermentation  and 
social  disturbance,  on  a  large  scale.  New  doctrines  of 
religion  were  preached,  and  the  Reformation  had  begun 
to  array  one  half  of  Europe  against  the  other,  not  only  on 
the  ground  of  theological  belief,  but  of  political  opinions, 
also.  The  political  dissensions  which  arose  were  influ- 
enced by  religious  differences,  and  were,  therefore,  ac- 
cording to  the  common  experience  of  history,  more  diffi- 
cult to  be  settled  than  any  others.  On  the  thrones  of  the 
largest  countries,  were  seated  young,  ambitious,  active, 
monarchs  : — Charles  the  Fifth,  of  Germany  and  Spain  ; 
Francis  the  First,  of  France  ;  and  Henry  the  Eighth,  of 
England.  The  dominions  of  Francis  the  First  and  Charles 
the  Fifth,  but  especially  of  the  latter,  had  become  by  in- 
heritance, marriage,  election,  and  conquest,  most  com- 
plicated ;  and  the  supremacy  over  many  districts,  or  whole 
realms,  was  disputed  between  the  French  King  and  the 
German  Emperor.  The  power  of  the  Pope,  having  neq,- 
essarily  declined,  in  the  same  degree  in  which  more  com- 
pact, enlarged,  and  national,  governments  rose  up,  had 
received  a  most  serious  shock,  by  the  Reformation.  It 
could  not,  therefore,  overawe  the  power  of  the  Emperor, 
who  ruled  over  many  of  the  fairest  portions  of  Europe, 
and  extended  his  conquests  over  the  richest  parts  of  Amer- 
ica. Still  it  was  strong  enough  to  make  him  a  desirable 
ally,  or,  if  allied  to  the  opposite  party,  a  formidable  enemy. 
Italy  was  divided  into  many  small  states,  some  of  which 
were,  nevertheless,  sufficiently  powerful  to  make  them, 
like  the  Pope,  important  allies  or  enemies.  The  feudal 
militia  had  gradually  lost  its  character  ;  and,  between  its 
extinction  and  the  beginning  of  more  regular  armies,  a  new 
species  of  soldiery  had  arisen.  This  consisted  of  men, 
making  a  profession  of  arms,  not,  however,  organized  into 
national  armies,  for  the  well-regulated  support  of  govern- 
ments, (for  such  armies  did  not  yet  exist,)  but  unatta  hed 
20* 


234  GREAT  EVENTS. 

to  any  country  or  government,  and  serving  the  highes, 
bidder  ;  and  that,  in  many  cases,  avowedly  for  the  sake 
of  the  expected  booty.  These  men  were  disbanded,  as 
soon  as  a  campaign  was  over,  when  they  sought  their  for- 
tune elsewhere.  In  most  cases,  they  were  not  even  ani- 
mated by  those  mistaken  notions,  which  are,  at  times, 
met  with  in  the  mere  soldier  of  fortune,  and  which,  errone- 
ous as  they  are,  arise,  nevertheless,  from  noble  impulses, 
and  are  thus  able,  in  some  degree,  either  to  ennoble  or 
temper  the  passions.  The  almost  universal  object  of  this 
soldiery  was  plunder  ;  and  no  passions  possess  the  power 
to  convert  man  into  so  fearful  a  fiend,  as  he  is  made  by 
religious  fanaticism  or  the  craving  for  lucre.  Wo  to  the 
sufferer,  if  his  persecutor  is  stimulated  by  both  !  These 
men,  forming  movable  masses,  to  be  disposed  of  by  any 
one  who  could  pay  them  or  allure  them  by  the  hope  of 
plunder,  increased,  in  their  turn,  the  facilities  for  conduct- 
ing wars,  and  wars,  too,  of  the  worst  kind  f  because  the 
soldiers  took  no  interest  in  the  general  causes  of  the  con- 
flict, nor  were  they  generally  inspired  with  an  heroic  devo- 
tion to  a  revered  general.*  On  the  other  hand,  these 
wars  greatly  increased  the  number  of  those,  who  chose  to 
harass  and  plunder,  rather  than  to  be  harassed  and  plun- 
dered. These  and  other  causes  produced  the  numerous 
wars,  during  the  period  which  has  been  mentioned.  A 
great  variety  existed,  also,  in  the  combination  of  the  polit- 
ical powers,  by  alliances,  leagues,  or  the  mutual  support 
furnished  in  troops  or  in  subsidies. 

The  first  war,  between  Charles  the  Fifth  and  Francis 
the  First,  broke  out  in  the  .Autumn  of  the  year  1521. 
The  Emperor  had  secretly  agreed  with  Pope  Leo  the 
Tenth,  and,  after  his  death,  with  his  successor,  Adrian 
the  Sixth,  to  drive  the  French  entirely  from  the  territory 
of  Italy.  Openly,  however,  Charles  demanded  Milan,  as 
a  fief  of  the  empire,  and  the  dukedom  of  Burgundy,  as  ap- 
pertaining to  his  Netherlands,  but  having  been  taken  pos- 
session of  by  Louis  the  Eleventh,  King  of  France.  Fran- 

'  he  First,  on  the  other  hand,  demanded  back  from  Spain, 
the  kingdoms  of  Navarre  and  Naples.  The  fortune  of  war 
decided  for  Charles,  in  the  years  1522  and  1523,  and  Duke 

*  Having  said  thus  much  of  the  evil  spirit,  whi<  h  animated  the  sol- 
diery of  those  periods,  we  ought  not  to  omit  to  mention  Bayard,  the 
"  knight  without  fmr  or  reproach,"  as  an  honorable  exception.  Ho 
may  be  considered  as  the  last  ray  of  the  setting  sun  of  chivalry. 


THE   SACK  OF  ROME.  235 

Francis  Sforza,  who  had  been  .deprived  of  the  dukedom 
of  Milan,  was  reestablished.  The  Spaniards,  in  1524,  at- 
tacked the  south  of  France,  but  were  unsuccessful  ;  and 
Francis  the  First  now  went,  in  person,  to  Italy,  where  he 
laid  siege  to  Pavia.  The  Imperial  general,  Freundsberg 
or  Frundsberg,*  and  the  Duke  Charles  of  Bourbon,  (gen- 
erally called  the  Constable  of  France,)  a  French  Prince  of 
the  blood,  (who,  being  ill-treated  by  the  mother  of  Fran- 
cis, had  deserted  him  arid  his  country,  and  taken  service 
under  the  Emperor,)  came  to  rescue  Pavia  ;  and,  in  a 
battle,  fought  on  the  twenty-fourth  of  February,  1525,  the 
French  army  was  beaten,  and  their  King  taken  prisoner. 
He  informed  his  mother  of  the  misfortune  which  had  be- 
fallen him,  in  these  words,  only  :  "Madam,  every  thing 
is  lost,  save  honor  ;" — words,  with  which  Louis  the  Eigh- 
teenth concluded  a  letter  to  Napoleon,  in  answer  to  one 
written  by  the  latter,  then  First  Consul,  in  which  he  pro- 
posed to  Louis  to  renounce  the  throne  of  France,  for  some 
principality  in  Italy,  or  a  large  revenue  for  himself  and 
family  .f 

Unfortunately,  this  fine  sentence  to  the  queen-mother 
proved  but  a  fine  sentence  ;  for  Francis,  after  having 
been  a  captive  at  Madrid,  for  eleven  months,  signed  a 
peace  with  Charles,  in  which,  among  other  stipulations, 
he  resigned  Burgundy  to  the  Emperor.  Having  returned 
to  his  kingdom,  however,  Francis  declared,  that  the  states 
of  Burgundy  and  the  parliament  of  Paris  would  not  allow 
him  to  give  up  Burgundy  ;  and  that  Clement  the  Seventh, 
then  occupying  the  papal  see,  had  dispensed  with  the  oath, 
which  Francis  had  solemnly  taken,  to  fulfil  the  conditions 
of  the  treaty  with  Charles.  Francis  was  then  about  to 
become  the  ally  of  the  Pope,  who  thus  scandalously  abused 
and  dishonored  his  authority.  A  league  was  now  con- 
cluded, under  the  auspices  of  the  Pope,  (hence  called  the 
holy  league,)  between  the  Pontiff,  Francis,  the  republic  of 
Venice,  and  the  Duke  of  Milan,  against  the  Emperor, 
and  under  the  protection  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  who  was 
to  have  an  estate  in  Naples,  of  thirty  thousand  crowns  a 
year,  for  himself,  and  another  of  ten  thousand  crowns  a 
year,  for  Cardinal  Wolsey.  These  bribes  were  afterwards 
increased  to  much  larger  sums.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
year  1527,  Duke  Charles  of  Bourbon,  supported  by  the 

*  Or  Franenberg.         f  Bourrienne 


236  GREAT  EVENTS. 

German  general,  George  Frunsberg,  one  of  the  chief  ene^ 
mies  of  the  Pope,  marched,  from  Upper  Italy,  with  an  army 
of  about  ten  thousand  Germans,  five  thousand  Spaniards, 
and  four  thousand  Italians,  without  the  command  of  the 
EmpeFor,  towards  Rome,  where  plunder  was  to  furnish  the 
means  of  support,  which  the  Imperial  coffers  did  not  sup- 
ply. Others  state  the  army  to  have  consisted  of  thirty 
thousand  men.  On  the  sixth  of  May,  Rome  was  assaulted  ; 
and,  although  Bourbon  fell,  mortally  wounded,  when  he 
was  lifting  his  foot  to  place  it  on  the  first  step  of  the  scal- 
ing ladder,  the  city  was  taken,  and  given  up,  for  many  days, 
to  a  pillage,  which  has  been  described,  by  all  writers,  as 
one  of  the  most  fearful,  sanguinary,  and  criminal,  scenes 
of  human  guilt,  ever  recorded,  horrible  as  such  scenes 
generally  are,  when  a  great  city  is  taken,  sword  in  hand, 
and  given  up  to  the  soldiers.  The  death  of  Bourbon  left 
the  army  free  from  the  restraining  authority  of  an  ener- 
getic leader.  Perhaps,  however,  even  he  could  not  have 
restrained  the  savage  soldiery  ;  or,  possibly,  he  would 
have  been  unwilling  thus  to  thwart  them,  in  getting  that 
ample  reward  for  their  toil,  to  which  he  himself  had  always 
pointed,  for  their  encouragement.  At  least,  it  is  certain, 
that  he  would  have  been  utterly  unable  to  restrain  their 
avarice,  cruelty,  and  carnal  appetite,  during  the  first  days 
of  pillage.  It  is  the  description  of  this  scene  of  horror 
and  guilt,  this  stern  page  of  history,  which  shows  to  what 
enormous  excesses  man  may  be  led  by  his  passions,  if 
uncurbed  by  morality,  religion,  honor,  and  noble  impulses, 
which  I  am  about  to  give,  in  the  following  translation  from 
the  description  of  an  eyewitness,  one  of  the  ancestors  of 
Napoleon. 

JAMES  BONAPARTE,  the  author  of  this  account,  lived  at 
the  court  of  Rome,  when  it  was  sacked.  He  composed 
several  works,  which  have  never  been  published.  I  am 
obliged  to  translate,  not  from  the  original,  but  from  a 
French  translation,  a  limited  number  only  of  which  were 
printed,  (I  believe  not  published,  but  merely  struck  off*,  for 
distribution,*)  under  the  title,  *  Sack  of  Rome,  written  in 
1527,  by  James  Bonaparte,  an  Eyewitness,  translated  from 
the  Italian,  by  N.  L.  B.,  Florence,  Grand-ducal  Printing 
office,  1830.'  The  letters,  N.  L.  B.,  are  the  initials  of 
Napoleon  Louis  Bonaparte,  son  to  Louis  Bonaparte,  Count 

*  I  owe  the  copy  in  my  possession  to  the  kindness  of  Joseph  Bona- 
parte, Count  Survilliers. 


THE   VACK  OF   ROME.  23? 

I 

St.  Leu,  once  King  of  Holland.  Napoleon  L.  Bonaparte 
died,  in  1831,  in  Italy,  during  the  insurrection  of  the  peo- 
ple, which  took  place  in  that  country,  subsequent  to  the 
French  revolution  of  1830. 

This  Work  of  James  Bonaparte,  of  which  I  shall  give  the 
latter  half,  only,  (the  first  half  being  occupied  with  an  his- 
torical survey  of  Italy,)  contains,  likewise,  the  names  of 
many  members  of  the  Bonaparte  family,  who  have  distin- 
guished themselves  by  literary  works  or  deeds  of  arms,  or 
whose  names  have  been  preserved,  because  they  happened 
to  be  magistrates,  or  in  other  public  employment.  It  be- 
gins with  the  mention  of  a  John  Bonaparte,  sent,  in  1178, 
from  the  free  city  of  Treviso  to  Padua,  in  an  official  ca- 
pacity.* 

The  reader  will  not  peruse,  without  interest,  the  distinc- 
tion which  James  Bonaparte  makes,  between  the  more 
relentless  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards,  although  Roman  Cath- 
olics, and  the  greater  placability  of  the  Germans,  though 
Protestants.  This  richer  fund  of  bonhomie, "f  manifesting 
itself,  in  some  degree,  even  in  this  riot  of  crime  and  fe- 
rocity, and  testified  to  by  a  witness,  who  surely  must  be 
considered  as  impartial,  upon  this  point,  (perhaps  even  re- 
luctantly impartial,)  is  a  striking  illustration  of  Bacon's 
remark,  that  stabbing  is  not  our  nature,  (meaning  thereby, 
not  the  nature  of  the  Teutonic  race.) 

THE  dawn  of  the  sixth  of  May,  which  ushered  in  a 
day  of  sorrow  and  tears  to  so  many  people, /found  the 
Imperial  army  already  drawn  up,  for  attack.  Duke 
Charles,  (of  Bourbon,)  who  could  be  recognised  by  his 
white  dress,  rode  along  the  lines,  and  called  upon  the 
soldiers  to  fight  bravely.  •  Addressing,  alternately,  the 
Spaniards,  the  Germans,  and  the  Milanese,  he  reminded 
them,  that  it  was  necessary  to  show,  on  this  occasion, 

*  This  list  mentions  Lewis  Mary  Fortunatus  Bonaparte,  (of  that 
branch  of  the  family  which  was  established  at  Sarzana,  in  Italy,)  as 
the  first,  who,  in  1612,  passed  over  to  the  island  of  Corsica,  in  the 
times  of  the  war  with  Genoa  ;  and  that  he  settled  at  Ajaccio,  where 
he  became  the  founder  of  the  Corsican  branch  of  the  Bonaparte  family. 
This,  according  to  the  donor  of  the  copy  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
note,  is  erroneous.  It  was  a  Francis  Bonaparte,  who  established  him- 
self, in  1512,  in  the  island  of  Corsica,  and  became  the  founder  of  the 
branch,  from  which  Napoleon  descended. 

t  Good  nature. — I. 


238  GREAT  EVENTS. 

the  same  ardor,  the  same  intrepidity,  which  they  had 
evinced  in  other  circumstances  ;  that,  not  only  their  rep- 
utation, but  their  lives  also,  were  that  day  at  stake  ;  and 
that  no  other  resource  was  left  them,  but  to  conquer, 
since  the  troops  of  the  league  were  behind  them  ;  and 
he  urged  them,  that,  rather  than  fall  alive  into  the  hands 
of  their  enemies,  they  should  die  by  their  own  hands,  if 
there  were  no  other  way  of  escape.  He  then  renewed 
the  promises  which  he  had  so  often  made,  assuring  them, 
that,  besides  their  portions  of  the  booty,  they  should  be 
placed  in  the  possession  of  rich  domains,  castles,  and 
towns.  He  reminded  the  Lutherans,  who  had  come 
with  Franenberg,  of  the  almost  insufferable  hunger,  the 
absolute  want  of  money,  and  the  privations  of  all  sorts, 
which  they  had  been  obliged  to  endure,  solely  with  the 
object  of  taking  Rome  ;  that  their  courage  soon  would 
open  the  gates  of  that  city,  into  which  they  would  enter, 
with  their  wives  and  children  ;  and  where  they  might  en- 
joy, at  their  Feisure,  the  incredible  treasures  of  so  many 
lords,  princes,  bishops,  and  cardinals.  Wherever  he 
saw  a  group  of  soldiers,  he  accosted  them,  to  encourage 
them  for  the  approaching  assault. 

Already  had  the  Spaniards,  urged  by  their  accustomed 
valor,  begun  to  break  into  several  parts  of  the  city.  On 
the  side  of  the  Via*  Julia,  a  division  of  the  Swiss  guard 
of  the  Pope  had  gallantly  repelled  the  attack  of  the  ene- 
my. The  latter  suffered  much,  too,  from  a  battery, 
which,  placed  on  a  neighboring  hill,  directed  a  galling  fire 
upon  their  flank  ;  two  Spanish  colors,  already  planted 
on  the  top  of  the  wall,  were  carried  off,  and  the  ensign- 
bearers  thrown  down  into  the  fosse. 

A  detachment  of  the  assailants  endeavored  to  glide, 
without  noise,  into  the  ward,  called  the  ward  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  above  the  garden  of  Cardinal  Ermellino,  where 
the  walls  are  lower. f 

*  Via  in  the  name  for  street  or  ro.id. 

;  1 1 '-re  follows  a  detailed  description  of  the  defective  fortification 
of  this  point.  The  negligence,  of  leaving  a  part  of  the  fortification  so 
vuhicr.-ibli',  is  ascribed  to  Captain  Renzo  da  Ceri,  and  the  other  en- 
gineer officers,  to  whom  the  superintendence  of  the  fortification  had 
been  intrusted. 


THE   SACK  OF  ROME.  239 

A  heavy  fog  had  been  arising  from  the  marshes,  ever 
since  the  break  of  day.  It  enveloped  the  environs,  and 
finally  intercepted  the  light  of  clay,  in  such  a  manner, 
that  it  was  difficult  to  see  beyond  the  distance  of  two 
steps.  On  this  account,  the  artillery  of  the  castle  St. 
Angelo  could  do  no  more  injury  to  the  enemy  than  other 
batteries  :  they  fired  at  random  ;  for,  so  great  was  the 
darkness,  that  the  artillerists  had  to  trust  rather  to  their 
ears  than  to  their  eyes,  and  were  obliged,  at  the  risk  of 
wounding  soldiers  of  the  garrison,  to  turn  their  fire  in 
the  direction  from  which  the  reports  of  the  hostile  artillery 
came. 

While  the  Imperialists  were  fighting  strenuously,  and 
striving  to  obtain  a  footing  in  the  city,  Bourbon,  heated 
with  the  passionate  desire  of  victory,  and  at  the  head  of 
the  most  intrepid  of  his  troops,  grasped,  with  his  left  hand, 
a  ladder,  leaning  against  the  wall,  and  with  his  right  made 
a  sign  to  his  soldiers  to  mount,  and  follow  their  comrades. 
At  this  moment,  a  ball,  fired  from  an  arquebuss,  entered 
his  side,  and  penetrated  through  the  body.  He  fell,  mor- 
tally wounded.*  It  is  reported  that,  before  expiring,  he 
pronounced  these  words  :  "  Officers  and  soldiers,  hide 
my  death  from  the  enemy,  and  keep  steadily  advancing. 
Victory  is  yours  ;  my  mishap  cannot  ravish  it  from  you." 

Thus,  according  to  some,  perished  Bourbon  ;  accord- 
ing to  others,  his  death  was  accompanied  by  some  differ- 
ent circumstances.  All,  however,  agree,  that  it  took 
place  under  the  walls  of  Rome  ;  it  being  the  will  of  God, 
that  his  punishment  should  closely  follow  upon  his  offence, 
and  that  a  man  of  his  rank,  traitorous  and  impious,  should 
not  feast  his  eyes  in  beholding  the  sacred  city  sacked 
and  ruined  by  his  sacrilegious  soldiery.  For  the  rest, 
he  was  an  excellent  general,  distinguished  by  his  liberali- 
ty and  bravery.  If  he  had  been  a  good  Christian,  in- 

*  The  vain-glorious  Benvenuto  Cellini,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
artists  of  his  age,  says,  in  his  life,  that  it  was  he  who  directed  the  can- 
non against  Bourbon,  and  that  he  saw  him  falling.  Even  if  Cellini'a 
account  could  otherwise  be  trusted,  the  heavy  fog,  mentioned  by 
Bonaparte,  shows  how  utterly  unfounded  the  claim  of  Cellini  is,  es- 
pecially when  we  consider  that  he  was,  according  to  his  own  account, 
in  the  castle  St.  Angelo. 


240  GREAT  EVENTS. 

stead  of  being  a  Protestant  ;*  if  he  had  loyally  served  his 
King,  instead  of  being  faithless  to  the  master  to  whom 
he  had  sworn  allegiance  and  faith,  it  would  not  be  difficult 
to  count  him  among  the  most  celebrated  captains  of  mod- 
ern times. 

When  the  report  of  so  fatal*  an  accident  had  spread 
among  the  commanders  of  the  Imperial  army,  their  ardor 
abated,  for  a  moment.  They  felt  what  an  irreparable 
loss  they  had  sustained,  and  saw  that  it  might  frustrate  the 
success  of  their  attack  :  yet  they  considered,  that,  thrown 
into  so  desperate  an  undertaking,  it  was  no  longer  within 
their  power  to  stop,  and  that  there  was  no  hope  for  them 
left,  except  in  victory.  Having  held,  therefore,  a  council 
of  war,  they  agreed  that  it  was  necessary  to  redouble  their 
efforts  and  the  vigor  of  their  attack,  in  order  to  snatch 
boldly  from  out  the  hands  of  fortune,  the  prize,  which  she 
accords  to  perseverance  and  intrepidity  only.  They  re- 
turned to  the  attack,  with  renewed  vigor,  and  assailed 
the  besieged  with  more  impetuosity  than  at  the  first.  The 
fog,  which  covered  them,  had  not  yet  been  dissipated, 
and  continued  to  protect  them  against  our  fire,  in  such  a 
manner,  that,  in  spite  of  the  most  obstinate  defence,  the 
soldiers  of  the  Pope  could  not  repel  them,  one  step,  nor 
obtain  the  slightest  advantage  over  them.  Nevertheless, 
our  men  neglected  nothing,  to  keep  them  off;  they  threw 
upon  them  enormous  blocks  of  stone,  lighted  torches, 
and  boiling  pitch  ;  they  directed  a  shower  of  bullets,  slugs, 
grapeshot,  and  musket-balls,  toward  points  from  which 
their  enemy's  ferocious  warcry  rose.  On  both  sides, 
the  obstinacy  was  unyielding  and  bitter,  and  lasted,  at  the 
least,  a  whole  hour,  without  the  smallest  abatement ;  but 

*  James  Bonaparte  was  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  and  the  remark 
against  the  Protestants   will  appear  natural  enough,  especially  if  we 
consider  the  time  at  which  he  wrote  ;  hut  I  do  not  know  what  he 
means  by  Bourbon  having  been  a  Protestant,  (the  French  translation 
has  rffunnf,)  unless  he  uses  the  expression  with  reference  to  the  Lu- 
therans, who  served  under  him.     Yet  nothing  was  more  common,  than 
I'roteitants  fought  on  tin-  UOIIKUI  Catholic,  nnd  Roman  Catholics 
on  the  Protestant,  side.     In  this  case,  however,  Bourbon  fought  in  the 
of  his  Catholic  majesty  ;  and  died  a  "  good  Christian,"  in  Bona- 
H  phrase  ;  an  expression,  which,  to  this  day,  signifies,  in  Spanish, 
a  Roman  Catholic 


THE   SACK  OF  ROME.  241 

the  Imperialists  began  to  get  the  better  of  the  conflict : 
they  were  the  superiors,  in  number,  and  were  able  unceas- 
ingly to  relieve  each  other.  When  one  line  of  arquebu- 
siers  had  fired  several  rounds,  it  retired,  and  was  instant- 
ly replaced  by  fresh  troops.  The  besieged  could  not 
see  the  number  of  their  enemies,  thus  constantly  reliev- 
ing one  another,  nor  witness  their  audacity,  without  some 
feelings  of  discouragement.  Though  they  had  taken  sev- 
eral banners  from  the  enemy,  and  had  repelled  them, 
several  times,  from  the  walls  ;  the  increasing  fury  of  their 
adversaries  gradually  intimidated  them,  and  made  them 
doubt  of  success. 

The  detachment  of  Spaniards,  which  had  directed  its 
efforts  against  the  garden  of  Cardinal  Ermellino,  had  suc- 
ceeded in  penetrating  into  the  city,  either  through  a  mur- 
derous breach,  made  by  force  of  balls  and  pikes,  or  through 
the  window  of  the  cellar,*  at  about  thirteen  o'clock,  (twen- 
ty minutes  after  nine,)  in  the  morning,f  without  the  knowl- 

*  This  cellar,  or  cave,  is  spoken  of  in  the  omitted  passage,  alluded 
to  in  a  previous  note. 

t  According  to  the  old  way  of  counting  time,  in  Italy,  the  hours  of 
the  day  are  reckoned  from  sunset.  Sunset  is  twenty-four  o'clock  ; 
one  o'clock,  therefore,  is  one  hour  after  sunset,  so  that  the  number 
designating  midnight  or  noon,  varies,  but  it  always  indicates  to  the  la- 
borer how  many  hours  of  daylight  are  before  him.  As  it  is  customary 
to  ring  the  bells  at  sunset,  to  invite  the  people  to  offer  an  Ave-Maria, 
(or  prayer  to  the  Virgin  Mary,)  the  twenty-fourth  hour  is  generally 
called  Ave-Maria.  The  French  introduced  the  common  manner  of 
computing  the  hours,  by  repeating  twice  the  number  twelve,  begin- 
ning with  noon  and  midnight.  But  when  the  papal  government  was 
reestablished,  the  people  preferred  the  old  way  of  counting  the  hours, 
to  the  "  French  way,"  as  it  was  called.  This  might  be  on  account  of 
the  general  adhesiveness  to  old  customs  ;  or,  because  the  old  manner 
is  more  convenient  to  the  field-laborer  and  the  mechanic,  in  a  country 
where  so  many  arts  are  carried  on  in  the  open  air,  and  the  hour  of 
sunset  is,  consequently,  of  the  greatest  importance,  forming  so  distinct 
a  demarcation,  in  the  whole  economy  of  industry  and  domestic  life.  In 
Florence,  the  "  French  way"  was  retained,  if  indeed  it  had  not  been 
introduced  before  the  Revolution.  The  old  way  was  retained  at 
Rome,  to  my  personal  knowledge,  as  late  as  in  1824.  Whether  it 
has  been  changed,  since,  I  am  unable  to  say.  Where  the  old  way 
of  computing  the  hours  is  retained,  the  almanack  gives,  for  each  day, 
the  hour  and  minute  at  which  Ave-Maria  is  tolled,  or,  at  which  the  aun 
sets  ;  or,  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  it  gives  the  exact  number 
for  noon.  To  one  who  is  accustomed  to  the  twelve-hour  system, 

21  o.  E. 


242  GREAT  EVENTS. 

edge  of  the  inhabitants.  The  detachment  was  followed 
by  a  part  of  the  army.  Since  that  part  of  the  wall,  which 
leads  from  the  gate  Terrione  to  the  ward  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  is  lower  than  any  where  else,  and  was  moreover 
badly  mounted  and  feebly  defended,  many  persons  feel 
persuaded,  that  the  enemy  penetrated  into  Rome,  in  this 
part  of  the  city.  But  if  it  be  considered,  that  the  first 
who  entered  were  but  few,  that  the  only  breach  in  the 
enclosure  was  on  the  side  of  the  small  house,*  the  lower 
opening  in  which  had  been  enlarged,  (by  the  enemy,)  and 
which  had  sustained  great  injury,  I  make  no  doubt  that 
the  reader  will  agree  with  the  opinion  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  inhabitants,  who  have  always  believed  that  the  en- 
emy broke  first  into  the  city  through  that  window.  This 
is  at  least  my  opinion  ;  but  I  have  no  objection  that  ev- 
ery one  should  believe  what  appears  most  probable  to  him. 
It  was  Renzo,f  who  first  saw  the  Spaniards  enter  ; 
and  it  is  said,  that  he  cried,  immediately,  "  There  is 
the  enemy  !  Save,  save  yourselves  !"  If  he  did  really 
pronounce  these  words,  it  must  be  agreed,  that  they  were 
supremely  ill-placed^  in  his  mouth.  His  duty,  as  an  of- 
ficer, was  to  rally  his  people  around  him,  to  make  stand 
against  the  enemy,  to  fall  upon  them,  with  impetuosity, 
and  to  beat  them  back  beyond  the  walls,  if  this  was  pos- 
sible^ as  many  other  captains  have  done,  in  critical  cir- 
cumstances. After  having  given  the  signal  of  flight,  as 
many  persons  present  in  the  action  have  assured  me,  he 
precipitately  retreated  toward  the  Sixtine  bridge,  follow- 
ed by  some  foot-soldiers  and  by  the  populace,  all  in  con- 
fusion and  disorder,  as  usually  happens  in  such  routs. 
The  soldiers,  having  learned  that  Renzo  was  flying,  im- 

the  Italian  manner  appears  much  moro  inconvenient,  when  merely 
reading  of  it,  than  he  really  finds  it,  in  practice  ;  for,  as  already  al- 
luded to,  it  has  the  convenience  of  showing,  at  any  precise  moment, 
how  many  hours  of  daylight  are  yet  left  ;  a  point  of  some  importance, 
in  Italy. 

*  Thin  house  u  described  in  the  omitted  part. 

t  Ilf'nzo  has  been  mentioned  in  a  previous  note. 

$  Souverainement  di'placeer 

§  Or  to  die,  sword  in  hand. 


THE   SACK  OF  ROME.  243 

mediately  abandoned  their  posts.  Suddenly,  a  hostile 
soldier  cried,  "  Viva  Espana  !*  Kill,  kill,  every  thing 
before  you."  The  tumult  was  at  its  height.  It  was 
only  after  the  greatest  trouble,  and  having  taken  many 
circuitous  routes,  that  Captain  Renzo,  in  company  with 
the  fugitives,  succeeded  in  gaining  the  castle  St.  Angelo.f 

Pope  Clement  heard  the  cries  of  the  soldiers,  and  pre- 
cipitately saved  himself,  through  a  long  corridor,  built  in 
a  double  wall.  He  caused  himself  to  be  carried  from 
his  palace  to  the  castle  St.  Angelo.  He  wept,  and  la- 
mented that  he  had  been  betrayed  by  all  the  world,  and 
on  his  way,  he  could  see  from  the  windows,  his  unfortu- 
nate soldiers  completely  routed,  and  pursued  by  ferocious 
enemies,  who  slew  them  with  their  halberds.  The  Pon- 
tiff, at  his  arrival  at  the  castle,  found  neither  provisions 
nor  ammunition  ;  and  he  instantly  ordered,  that  every 
thing  should  be  obtained  from  the  neighboring  houses  that 
could  be  procured  in  so  great  a  confusion. 

While  the  supplies  were  procuring  in  such  haste,  the 
entrance  into  the  castle  was  blocked  up  by  such  a  num- 
ber of  prelates,  merchants,  gentlemen,  and  ladies,  that 
they  could  not  be  admitted.  At  length,  it  became  pos- 
sible to  let  down  the  portcullis,  but  only  with  great  diffi- 
culty, on  account  of  the  accumulated  rust.|  More  than 
three  thousand  persons  were  crowded  together  in  the 
interior.  Among  these,  were  a  great  number  of  distin- 
guished persons,  including  all  the  cardinals,  except  four, 
who  believed  that  they  might  venture  to  remain  in  their 
palaces,  because  they  were  chiefs  of  the  Ghibelline  par- 

*  Pronounced,  Viva  Espanya,  meaning,  Spain  for  ever  ! 

t  The  castle  St.  Angelo  is  a  fort,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tiber,  (looking  down  the  river,)  in  the  north  of  Rome,  and  close  to 
the  river.  It  is  built  upon,  and  principally  consists  of,  the  stupendous 
remains  of  the  mausoleum  which  Adrian  caused  to  be  built,  to  receive 
his  ashes,  in  the  gardens  of  Domitian,  nearly  over  against  the  mauso- 
leum of  Augustus.  The  Popes  have  repeatedly  used  it  as  a  place  of 
refuge  against  foreign  enemies,  or  the  revolted  populace.  On  the  top 
of  the  main  building,  the  remaining  moles  of  the  mausoleum,  stands  a 
colossal  statue  of  the  archangel  St.  Michael,  from  which  the  fort  de- 
rives its  present  name. 

4  It  must  be  owned,  that  the  Pope  could  not  have  had  very  activa 
and  wise  officers. 


244  GREAT   EVENTS. 

ty.*  Cardinal  Pucci  received  several  severe  blows  on 
the  head,  before  he  arrived  at  the  castle  St.  Angelo,  into 
which  he  was  carried,  almost  dead,  through  a  window,  by 
his  servants.  Cardinal  Ermellino,  together  with  many 
other  gentlemen,  caused  themselves  to  be  hoisted  in  a 
basket  upon  the  wall  of  the  castle. 

A  totally  different  result  had  been  anticipated.  The 
Florentine  merchants,  the  prelates,  and  other  people,  ran 
to  and  fro,  to  find  a  retreat.  It  was  no  longer  possible 
to  leave  Rome.  Some  retreated  into  the  houses  of  the 
Colonna  family  ;f  others,  into  those  which  belonged  to 
Spaniards,  Flemish,  and  Germans, J  who  were  establish- 
ed at  Rome  ;  and  still  others  sought  safety  in  the  palaces 
of  the  four  Ghibelline  cardinals. § 

It  is  painful  to  observe,  that  none  of  the  captains  or 
soldiers,  in  the  service  of  the  Church,  tried,  in  this  great 
catastrophe,  to  cut  off  the  bridge,  and  to  defend  the  walls 
of  the  ward  Trastevere  ;||  that  not  one  resolved  to  die, 
sword  in  hand,  rather  than  basely  to  give  himself  up  to  an 
implacable  enemy.  All  fled  to  save  themselves,  aug- 
menting, by  the  disorder  of  their  retreat,  the  terror  of  the 
lower  classes,  and  yielding  to  their  adversaries  the  cer- 
tainty of  victory.  If  all  the  commanders  had  agreed  with 

*  The  Imperial  party. 

t  The  Colonnas  were  one  of  the  most  famous  families  of  Rome,  in 
the  middle  ages  and  at  later  periods.  Pope  Martin  the  Fifth,  elected 
m  1417,  by  the  council  at  Constance,  and  who  is  mentioned  in  the 
account  of  the  death  of  HUBS,  given  in  this  Volume,  was  of  the  Colon- 
na family.  The  patron  of  Petrarch  was  likewise  one  of  its  members. 
Distinguished  generals,  statesmen,  and  prelates,  have  proceeded  from 
this  family.  They  were  Ghibellines,  or  for  the  Emperor  ;  people, 
therefore,  hoped  they  should  be  safe  in  their  palaces. 

t  Charles  being  King  of  Spain,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  lord  of 
the  Netherlands,  people  hoped  that  the  houses  of  his  subjects  in  Rome 
would  afford  an  asylum,  sufficiently  sacred,  in  the  eyes  of  a  soldiery 
fighting  in  his  name. 

§  The  body  of  cardinals  was  divided  into  factions,  as  they  term- 
ed it  :  th  a  is,  parties,  siding  with  one  or  the  other  of  the  most  po- 
tent monrirrh*.  and  n ••  -i-mnir  pensions  for  their  support  ;  as  Frederic 
the  Second  of  Prussia  paid  I'aniii,  mini-trr  to  Tatliarinn  the  Second. 
to  support  his  interest  a^ .nn-t  I'otrmkm,  and  as  formerly  so  many 
n  drew  pi-n^ioiH  fioin  foreign  powers. 

II  Which  means  beyond  the  Tiber. 


THE   SACK  OF  ROME.  245 

one  another,  and  concerted  the  proper  measures  to  defend 
the  lives  and  property  of  their  fellow-citizens,  their  efforts 
would  have  been  crowned  with  complete  success.*  It 
would  have  been  necessary  to  set  fire  to  the  wood  and 
to  the  fascines  which  covered  the  bridge,  as  the  Romans 
did,  in  olden  times,  when  Horatius  Codes  heroically  re- 
solved to  receive,  upon  his  single  breast,  the  shock  of 
the  enemy.  The  Imperialists  would  have  been  placed, 
by  the  destruction  of  the  bridge,  in  the  same  difficulty  in 
which  they  found  themselves  before  their  entry  into  the 
city.  Indeed,  their  situation  would  have  been  still  more 
disadvantageous,  exposed,  as  they  would  have  been,  to 
the  continual  fire  from  the  castle  St.  Angelo.f  Moreo 
ver,  a  short  time  after  the  entry  of  the  enemy,  sever- 
al horse  and  foot  of  the  black  bands,  who  could  have 
entered  so  easily  into  Rome  by  the  Porta  di  Populo,J 
and  vigorously  impeded  the  progress  of  the  Imperialists, 
arrived  at  Monte  Rotondo.§  If  the  Roman  soldiers  had 
not  too  soon  given  up  the  idea  of  defending  the  city,  they 
would  have  profited  by  this  reenforcement  to  aggravate 
the  difficulties  of  the  position  in  which  the  enemy  would 
have  been  placed,  and  to  reanimate  the  fainting  zeal  of 
their  allies.  By  this  means,  they  would  have  secured 
the  liberty  of  the  Pontiff. 

When  the  Spaniards  perceived  Renzo,  and  those  who 
defended  themselves  behind  the  walls  and  entrenchments, 
basely  taking  to  flight,  they  called,  with  great  noise,  upon 

*  Hardly  !  For  the  soldiers  of  the  Pope  did  not  fight  for  « c  fellow- 
citizens,"  as  Bonaparte  expresses  it-  They  were  mercenaries,  like 
the  assailants  ;  but  there  was  this  difference  :  the  latter  fought  for 
booty,  perhaps  existence,  because  Lutrec,  the  commander  of  the  army 
of  the  league,  it  was  feared,  might  approach  daily  ;  while  the  besieged 
fought  but  for  their  pay,  and  perhaps  some  gratuity,  in  case  of  victory. 

t  But  Bonaparte  has  before  told  us,  that  there  was  no  powder  in  the 
castle  St.  Angelo.  No  essential  change  would  have  been  produced 
by  such  means  as  those  mentioned  above,  in  a  war  of  tried,  gallant, 
and  furious,  soldiers,  against  men  who  had  not  even  looked  after  the 
portcullis,  and  greased  it  in  time. 

t  Porta  di  Populo,  or  Gate  of  the  People,  the  ancient  Porta  Flarni- 
nia,  the  northern  gate  of  Rome,  near  the  Tiber  ;  the  gate  through 
which  every  foreigner,  who  comes  from  Upper  Italy,  enters. 

§  Four  leagues  north-northeast  of  Rome. 
21* 


246  GREAT  EVENTS. 

their  comrades  without ;  these  promptly  joined  them,  and 
they  followed  up  their  advantages  together.  They  thought 
no  longer  of  any  thing  else,  but  of  killing  all  with  whom 
they  should  meet.  From  time  to  time,  those  of  our  sol- 
diers, who  did  not  run  like  their  fellows,  and  were  desirous 
of  facing  the  enemy,  seeing  themselves  overwhelmed  by 
numbers,  and  finding  no  other  means  of  escape,  adroitly 
glided  among  the  victors,  and  turned  their  arms  against 
the  inhabitants,  who,  but  an  instant  before,  were  their 
friends.  On  the  other  side,  the  German  soldiers,  having 
passed  the  high  trenches,  in  various  places,  cut  the  pop- 
ulace into  pieces,  as  they  hastened  to  throw  down  their 
arms  and  sue  for  quarter.  Not  one  of  the  Roman  sol- 
diers could  escape  the  wrath  of  the  conquerors.  In  vain 
did  they  retreat,  without  arms,  into  the  churches  or  sac- 
risties ;  in  vain  did  they  embrace  the  altars  ;  in  places, 
which  even  the  most  cruel  of  men,  the  Goth  Totilas  and 
the  Vandal  Genseric,  had  respected,  they  were  massa- 
cred, without  mercy.  Thus,  the  Imperialists  possessed 
themselves,  in  a  very  short  time,  and  almost  without  fur- 
ther loss,  of  the  suburbs  of  Rome. 

Nearly  the  whole  army  had  entered  oy  the  gate  of 
Pancratius,  broken  and  shattered  by  the  terrible  shocks 
it  had  sustained,  and  by  the  carrying  of  the  intrench- 
ments.  It  was  now  restored  by  the  provisions  found  in 
the  place  of  which  it  had  taken  possession.  The  chiefs 
gave  out,  that,  on  account  of  the  death  of  Bourbon,  and 
also  for  other  reasons,  they  intended  to  treat  with  the 
His  Holiness*  believed  them  sincere.  The  am- 
bassador of  Portugal  was  sent  to  the  Spanish  captains,  to 
treat  with  them.  These  received  him  with  new  protes- 
tations of  their  desire  to  come  to  some  arrangement.  In 
truth,  they  were  already  masters  of  one  part  of  the 
city  ;  but  they  were  not  yet  sure  whether  they  would  be 
able  to  cross  the  Tiber.  They  artfully  feigned  to  incline 
<1  peace  ;  and,  after  having  thus  carried  on  their  de- 
ception, for  some  time,  they  held  a  council  with  the  Ger- 
man commanders.  Upon  leaving  this  council  of  war, 

•  The  Popo  is  styled  his  Holiness,  as  a  King  is  called  his  Majesty. 


THE    SACK   OF  ROME.  247 

they  declared  that  it  was  useless  any  longer  to  negotiate  ; 
that  they  would  no  longer  be  held  back  ;  and  that  they 
did  not  care  how  fatigued  their  troops  were  ;  they  would 
have  the  rest  of  the  city.  They  had  thus  obtained  time 
to  inform  themselves  of  the  means  which  the  inhabitants 
had  to  defend  themselves,  and  to  assure  themselves  that 
no  resistance  need  be  feared  from  this  panic-stricken  mul- 
titude. They  marched,  therefore,  at  the  sound  of  trum- 
pets, drums,  and  other  military  instruments,  toward  the 
great  entrance  into  the  city  proper,  where*  they  had  been 
preceded  by  a  thousand  arquebusiers,  who  had  received 
'orders  to  surprise  the  troops,  who,  it  was  presumed,  would 
be  found  placed  to  defend  it.  But  it  was  undefended  ; 
the  few  men,  to  whom  this  post  had  been  assigned,  had 
run  away,  as  soon  as  they  had  perceived  the  approaching 
enemy,  seized  with  such  a  panic,  that  they  had  not  even 
let  down  the  portcullis.  Two  Spanish  archers  passed 
the  entrance,  and  threw  themselves  boldly  into  the  city. 
They  were  received  with  a  shower  of  balls  and  bullets, 
but  neither  of  them  was  hit.  The  Spaniards  pursued  their 
way,  without  fearing  the  death  which  threatened  them, 
from  all  sides,  and  entered  the  neighboring  square,  of 
which  they  immediately  took  possession,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  their  comrades,  who  had  followed  them.  Imme- 
diately after,  without  losing  any  time,  they,  with  the  rest 
of  the  army,  proceeded  toward  the  Porta  Settimiana, 
'Septimian  Gate.)  The  Italians,  commanded  by  Lew- 
s  de  Gonzagua,  surnamed  Rodomont,*  on  account  of 
his  bravery,  and  of  the  terror,  with  which  he  inspired  his 
enemies,  passed  the  wall  which  leads  from  the  gate  of 
St.  Pancratius  to  the  Septimian  gate,  and  traversed  the 
vineyard  of  the  Janiculum.f  They  drove  the  Papal  sol- 
diers from  this  place,  with  great  ease,  and  rejoined  the 
bulk  of  the  army  near  the  Sixtine  bridge,  which  they 
boldly  passed,  without  meeting  with  much  opposition. 

*  Rodomont  is  the  name  of  the  fictitious  hero,  celebrated  in  the 
great  epic  of  Ariosto. 

t  The  Mons  Janiculus,  or  the  Janiculum,  a  hill  or  ridge  on  the  west 
of  Rome,  from  which  the  most  commanding  view  of  the  city  may  be 
enjo/ed. 


248  GREAT   EVENTS. 

They  killed  all  the  fugitives,  upon  whom  they  could  seize, 
and  made  their  general  entry  into  the  city,  forty  thousand* 
strong,  divided  into  various  troops  : — twenty  thousand 
Germans,  six  thousand  Spaniards,  and  the  rest  Italians, 
commanded  by  Fabricius  Colonna,  and  the  abovemen- 
tioned  Gonzagua, — old,  heavy-armed  foot  or  lighthorse, 
of  all  nations,  without  a  common  general-in-chief,  gather- 
ed together,  under  their  colors,  solely  by  the  hope  of 
booty.  Among  their  officers,  were  observed,  Ferdinand 
Gonzagua,  and  Philibert  of  Orange,  a  Fleming,  to  whom, 
after  the  death  of  Bourbon,  the  soldiers  had  assigned  the 
chief  command. 

After  having  ravaged  all  the  suburbs,  and  passed  the 
Sixtine  bridge,  they  took  their  march  toward  the  castle 
St.  Angelo,  whither,  as  they  had  heard,  the  Pope  had 
retired ;  they  hoped  thus  to  possess  themselves  of  the 
persons  both  of  the  Pontiff  and  the  other  chiefs  of  the 
Roman  Church.  They  attacked  the  castle,  with  fury. 
A  Spanish  colonel,  at  the  head  of  his  regiment,  exerted 
himself  to  blow  up  the  gate  ;  but  he  paid  the  penalty  due 
to  his  temerity.  He  lost  his  life,  and  a  large  number  of 
his  followers  perished  with  him.  The  others,  discour- 
aged by  this  failure,  considered,  for  the  moment,  the  dif- 
ficulties of  the  place  insurmountable.  They  placed  strong 
guards  there,  and  returned  to  consummate  the  ruin  of  the 
Roman  people.  These  latter  were  petrified,  with  fear  ; 
all  the  brave  men,  who  might  have  been  successfully  op- 
posed to  the  fury  of  the  barbarians,  had  disappeared  ; 
they  hoped  no  longer  for  aid,  from  without  Dismayed, 
they  thought  their  last  hour  had  come,  and  resigned  them- 
selves, beforehand,  to  the  treatment  which  they  had  to 
expect  at  the  hands  of  so  infuriated  a  soldiery.  They 
!  ihe  lot  of  those  who  had  had  the  good  fortune  to 
fall  under  the  walls  of  Rome,  while  defending  their  coun- 
try. A  great  number  of  inhabitants,  separated  already, 
as  it  were,  from  the  goods  of  this  world,  would  have  con- 
sidered themselves  happy,  could  they  but  appease  the 
fury  of  the  conquerors  at  the  price  of  all  they  possessed. 

*  Thia  number,  according  to  the  statement  given  in  the  ir.trodoo 
tory  remarks,  is  much  too  large. 


THE   SACK  OF  ROME.  249 

In  fact,  the  horror  of  their  destiny  was  to  realize  all  the 
terrors  which  their  imagination  had  created. 

The  army,  giving  up  the  siege  of  the  castle,  divided 
itself  into  several  bodies,  proceeding  into  different  quar- 
ters. They  perceived,  in  passing  along,  fathers  and 
mothers  of  families,  stationed  at  the  threshold  of  palaces, 
or  at  the  entrance  of  their  houses,  in  despair,  at  the  loss 
of  their  sons,  killed  in  combat,  and  horror-struck,  at  the 
misery  which  yet  threatened  their  doomed  city.  These 
unfortunate  beings,  dressed  in  mourning,  offered  to  the 
enemy,  their  houses,  furniture,  all  their  goods,  and,  pelt- 
ing into  tears,  asked,  with  the  voice  of  supplicants,  that 
they  would  spare  their  lives.  These  touching  prayers 
had  not,  however,  the  power  to  move  the  hearts  of  the 
ferocious  soldiers.  As  though  the  sound  of  drums  and 
trumpets  had  animated  them  for  carnage,  they  threw 
themselves,  sword  in  hand,  upon  these  wretched  beings, 
and,  without  distinction  of  age,  sex,  or  place,  slew  all 
they  could  espy.  The  foreigners  were  spared  no  more 
than  the  Romans,  because  the  murderers  fired  indifferent- 
ly upon  both,  without  any  other  motive  than  a  thirst  for 
blood.  Exasperated  by  the  death  of  their  chief,  they  de- 
filed themselves  with  barbarities,  of  which  history  hardly 
shows  any  other  instance.  Finding  no  longer  any  resist 
ance,  they  became,  in  a  short  time,  complete  masters  of 
this  ancient  and  noble  city,  where  treasures  were  accu- 
mulated, such  as  were  sufficient  to  satisfy  an  army,  the 
most  greedy  for  pillage. 

The  Spaniards  were  the  first  who  became  gorged 
with  carnage,  and  felt  some  feeling  of  humanity  reappear- 
ing within  them  ;  some  compassion  for  the  conquered, 
who,  though  enemies,  were  Christians.  They  ceased 
to  slay  those  that  fell  into  their  hands,  and  contented 
themselves  with  making  them  prisoners.  When  the 
Germans  saw  this,  and  perceived  that  the  Spanish  regi- 
ments did  no  longer  follow  what  they  themselves  termed  the 
laws  of  war,  they  began  to  suspect  the  latter  of  treason. 
The  Spanish  officers,  in  order  to  dissuade  them,  made 
them  understand,  that  the  city  was  taken,  and  abandoned 
by  those  who  might  have  defended  it ;  that  nothing  was  to 


250  GREAT   EVENTS. 

be  feared,  on  their  score  ;  that,  as  the  inhabitants  had  con- 
cealed every  thing  most  valuable,  it  was  advisable  to  grant 
life  to  those  who  would  discover  their  treasures.  The  Ger- 
mans perceived  the  weight  of  this  remark.  They,  on 
their  part,  began  now,  likewise,  to  stop  the  passers-by, 
or  the  Romans  whom  they  found  on  the  thresholds  of 
their  doors,  and  who  implored  their  mercy.  They  forc- 
ed the  unhappy  beings  to  open  their  rooms,  from  which 
they  carried  off  every  thing  that  they  conveniently  could. 
They  did  not  stop  at  this  species  of  robbery.  They 
committed  outrageous  violence  upon  all  women  whom 
they  met.  The  prisoners  were  witnesses  to  these  heart- 
rending scenes  ;  but  who  could  oppose  them  ?  No  one 
dared  even  to  lift  his  voice.  The  prisoners  were  pro- 
hibited from  crying  out,  at  calamities,  sufficient  to  move 
hearts  of  flint,  and  to  touch  the  most  impious.  These 
barbarians  had  consideration  neither  for  elevated  rank, 
nor  nobility  of  blood,  nor  the  prayers  of  beauty,  nor  the 
tears  of  mothers.  Their  hearts  were  securely  closed 
against  every  sentiment  of  humanity.  Daughters  were 
seen  throwing  themselves  into  the  arms  of  their  unfortu- 
nate mothers,  and  these  seizing  the  soldiers  by  their 
beards  or  hair,  in  order  to  hinder  them  from  consummat- 
ing their  horrid  purposes.  Useless  efforts  !  All  these 
supplications,  and  this  resistance,  served  only  to  irritate 
the  offenders  still  more.  They  shamefully  abused  and 
tortured  their  defenceless  prisoners,  one  after  the  other, 
and  then  killed  them,  before  the  very  eyes  of  their  fathers 
or  husbands,  whom  they  kept  securely  bound.  These, 
overwhelmed  with  horror,  at  the  shocking  spectacle,  had 
no  longer  tears  to  shed,  nor  any  voice  for  complaint. 
They  contemplated  the  victims,  with  a  fixed  eye,  inani- 
mate, like  statues.  Some  mothers,  no  longer  able  to  en- 
dure the  sight,  tore  out  their  own  eyes  ;*  others  retreat- 

'    \  rin-umrttance,  so  shocking  as  this,  should  not  be  recorded,  Imt 

nn  the  most  undoul.ti-d  c\  idence.     As  tin-  sntnucnt  now  reads,  it 

iiiin-h    liUi-   ;i    fictitioiiH    i-iiilicllishnicnt  :    for,    generally 

•peaking,  such  would  hardly  CMT  !>••  i  IK-  conduct  of  a  mother,  on  \\it- 

nessing  the  horrible  sufferings  of  her  daughter.     Still,  wo  might  pos- 

nilily  iiii.-i^'iin-  such  ;i  violcnrr  ii^.m^t  tin-  srii-,  ^  \\hirh  c;irr\  tin-  n\v- 

to  the  Houl,  in  the  best  days  of  ancient  Rome,  in  some  wo- 


THE   SACK  OF    ROME.  251 

ed  into  subterraneous  caverns,  where,  nobody  daring  to 
carry  them  food,  they  died,  of  hunger. 

The  houses  of  private  persons  were  not  the  only  places 
of  these  abominations  ;  they  were  committed  even  in  the 
holy  temples,  in  the  chapels  consecrated  to  God,  where 
married  and  unmarried  women,  of  all  classes,  had  taken 
refuge,  full  of  hope  of  the  Divine  protection.  No  human 
hand  could  protect  them  against  the  danger.  They  were 
discovered  by  the  heretics,  who  were  soon  joined  by  the 
Italians,  and  experienced  the  same  treatment  to  which 
the  inmates  in  the  private  houses  had  been  subjected. 

In  the  midst  of  the  general  stupor,  some  traits  of  Ro- 
man firmness  were  nevertheless  observed.*  Several 
fathers,  with  daggers  in  their  hands,  preferred  to  immo- 
late their  unhappy  daughters,  rather  than  suffer  them  to 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors  ;  but,  it  makes  us 
tremble  to  say  it,  they  could  not,  even  thus,  always  pro- 
tect them  against  outrage. 

The  nunneries  were  no  more  spared,  than  the  churches. 
These  audacious  contemners  of  objects  respected  by 
the  faithfulf  entered,  like  enraged  wolves  into  a  sheep- 
fold,  and  transformed  these  sacred  retreats  into  places  of 

man,  of  a  heroism  even  then  peculiar  ;  but  of  modern  Rome,  and  the 
time  of  which  we  are  speaking,  such  a  thing  is  not  credible.  Noth- 
ing is  easier  than  to  imagine  a  mother,  who  has  her  hands  free,  (which 
to  do  what  is  here  recorded,  she  must  have,)  falling  madly  upon  him 
who  sacrifices  her  daughter  ;  but  this  putting  out  her  own  eyes  has 
something  too  theatrical  in  it. 

*  The  reader  must  have  observed,  by  this  and  several  previous 
passages,  that  the  author  writes  in  the  style  of  the  writers  in  the 
fifth,  sixth,  and  later,  centuries,  always  styling  the  conquerors  bar- 
barians, but  forgetting  that  the  Romans,  for  whom,  with  the  same 
name,  there  is  also  claimed  an  affinity  of  character  to  that  of  the 
ancient  Romans,  were  far  worse.  They  were,  indeed,  a  cowardly, 
degenerate,  and  vicious,  set,  without  patriotism  ;  without  public 
spirit,  of  any  sort  ;  without  even  the  common  valor  of  men,  who  are 
ashamed  of  being  suspected  of  cowardice  ;  and  especially  destitute, 
about  this  period,  of  the  virtue  of  chastity. 

t  The  faithful,  here,  ^eans  Roman  Catholic  ;  the  contemners, 
Protestants.  It  will  appear  from  the  account  of  James  Bonaparte 
himself,  and  is  well  known  by  every  one  who  is  familiar  with  the 
details  of  those  or  subsequent  wars  in  the  seventeenth  century,  how 
indifferent  it  was,  whether  the  conquerors  were  Roman  Catholic  or 


252  GREAT   EVENTS. 

outrage.  ********  Where  they  found  no  booty, 
they  fired  the  houses  ;  especially,  wherever  the  inhabi- 
tants showed  the  slightest  indication  of  resistance. 

It  was,  as  if  this  magnificent  city,  the  see  of  the  visi- 
ble chief  of  the  Church,  so  often  the  theatre  of  the  most 
brilliant  triumphs,  of  the  glory  of  the  most  shining  deeds, 
had  for  centuries  been  doomed  to  become  the  prey  of 
these  savages. 

When  they  had  somewhat  satiated  their  thirst  for  blood, 
they  directed  their  attention  to  the  immense  riches  of  the 
sacred  places.  The  Lutherans,  who  composed  a  great 
part  of  this  army,  did  not  consider  themselves  subject  to 
any  species  of  regard  or  consideration.  Hardly  had  they 
set  foot  into  a  church,  before  their  bloody  hands  were 
stretched  out,  to  grasp  the  chalices,  images,  crosses,  or 
precious  vessels,  which  struck  their  eyes.  Whenever 
they  found  relics,  they  threw  them  contemptuously  on 
the  ground.  How  many  of  .these  should  we  not  have 
lost,  if  pious  Romans,  witnesses  of  these  profanations, 
had  not  carefully  collected  these  venerable  remains,  and 
concealed  and  carried  them  away,  in  order  to  restore  them, 
at  a  later  period  !  They  tore  the  pictures  of  the  saints 
from  the  walls,  to  soil,  tear,  or  burn,  them.  They  de- 
faced the  al  fresco*  paintings  ;  and  some  of  them  went  into 
the  sacristies,  to  dress  themselves  in  the  sacerdotal  vest- 
ments, and,  ascending  upon  the  altar,  they  officiated,  by 
way  of  derision,  like  the  ministers  of  our  religion  ;  but, 
instead  of  prayers,  they  uttered  blasphemies. f 

In  the  street,  one  could  every  moment  meet  servants 
of  the  army,  who  carried  large  packages  of  sacred  vest- 
ments, or  other  richly-embroidered  articles,  chandeliers, 
and  vessels  of  gold  or  silver. 

Scenes,  more  deplorable,  shocked  the  eye,  in  other 

Protestant,  as  respected  tlirir  treatment  of  places  of  worship,  and 
oth'T  luiildings  consecrated  to  religious  purposes. 

*  Jllfretco  paintings  are  done  on  the  fresh  lime,  with  which  the 
wall  is  covered. 

t  H'-fore  the  Reformation,  fools'  masses,  ao  called,  used  to  be  eel 
el.r.it.-.l,  in  whifh  tin-  forms  of  the  whole  mass  was  gone  through 
with,   hut   <  .in.  UUP  <|   \\nli  ;i   \n-\v  to  amuse   the   audience.     Thw 
shocking  abuse  took  place,  in  several  countries,  about  Muster. 


THE   SACK   OF  ROME.  253 

places.  Spaniards  and  Germans  could  be  seen  forcing 
prisoners  of  all  ages  and  ranks  in  society,  by  blows  with 
sticks,  to  lead  them  to  their  dwellings,  which  already  had 
been  pillaged  and  ravaged,  from  the  cellar  to  the  garret. 
They  imprisoned  them,  here,  in  order  to  extort  more 
money  from  them.  A  great  number  of  inhabitants  were 
lying  lifeless  on  the  pavement,  covered  with  mire  and 
blood.  They  had  met  with  their  death,  in  trying  to  re- 
sist the  conquerors.  Between  them,  were  lying  others, 
in  whom  there  was  yet  some  life  remaining,  but  who 
were  condemned  to  perish,  forgotten  and  neglected  by 
all,  for  want  of  assistance. 

In  the  midst  of  disorder,  frequently  a  man,  a  woman, 
and  a  child,  were  seen,  precipitating  themselves  from  the 
highest  windows, — preferring  rather  to  die,  thus  mutilated, 
on  the  pavement,  to  falling  into  the  hands  of  these  furious 
troops.  Sometimes,  the  soldiers  themselves  threw  them 
out.  If  some  wretch  succeeded  in  escaping,  he  was  at 
once  pursued,  and  slain  ;  a  fate  which  cannot  be  recount- 
ed, without  trembling. 

r-  The  conquerors  showed  no  more  regard  for  the  one 
party  than  for  the  other,  and  treated  their  countrymen, 
who  had  been,  for  many  years,  established  in  Rome,  no 
better  than  the  Roman  courtiers  and  prelates.  They  did 
not  even  spare  the  ambassadors  of  the  kings,  and  still 
less  the  cardinals,  who,  trusting  too  much  to  their  well- 
known  attachment  to  the  Emperor,  and  to  their  rank  and 
popularity,  had  believed  that  they  might  remain  without 
danger,  in  their  palaces,  and  that  they  would  even  be 
treated  with  distinction  by  the  enemy.  They,  with  all 
who  had  taken  refuge  in  their  palaces,  in  the  hope  of 
finding  an  asylum,  were  made  prisoners. 

I  will  mention,  here,  one  circumstance,  which  borders 
on  the  ludicrous,  and  which  may  show  the  disposition  of 
troops  thus  transported  with  fury.  While  they  were  run- 
ning hither  and  thither,  eager  only  to  rob,  to  destroy,  and 
to  kill,  and  penetrating  into  stores  and  workshops,  about 
ten  Spaniards  had  entered  a  shop  of  a  superior  character. 
Among  various  packages,  a  large  bag  was  found,  filled 
with  the  smallest  copper  coin,  which  these  criminals, 

22  G.    E. 


254  GREAT   EVENTS. 

blinded  by  cupidity,  took  for  a  bag  filled  with  gold.  As 
soon  as  they  had  communicated  their  important  discovery 
to  each  other,  they  watched  that  no  one  else  should  enter 
the  same  house,  who  might  share  in  their  plunder.  They 
desired  to  retain  their  precious  booty  for  themselves, 
alone.  A  German  company  passed  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  perceiving  that  those  who  were  within  would  not  even 
allow  them  to  approach  the  house,  they  did  not  doubt, 
for  a  moment,  that  there  must  be  some  rich  booty,  of 
which  the  Spaniards  declined  to  allow  them  a  share. 
Not  to  lose  much  time,  of  the  preciousness  of  which  they 
were  fully  sensible,  they  fired  at  the  house,  threw  pow- 
der into  it,  and  set  it  on  fire  ;  saying,  that  it  was  unjust, 
that  the  Germans  should  carry  the  victory,  and  the 
Spaniards  should  gather  the  fruits  of  it.  Before  they 
departed,  the  whole  shop  was  in  flames  ;  and  it  was  en- 
tirely consumed,  with  many  who  were  within, — a  just  ret- 
ribution for  their  insatiable  cupidity. 

Among  the  various  precious  stones,  which  a  prelate, 
made  prisoner  by  the  Germans,  had  about  him,  there 
was  a  diamond,  worth  about  three  or  four  hundred  dol-» 
lars.  One  of  the  soldiers,  who  tried  to  pull  the  ring,  in 
which  the  diamond  was  set,  from  his  finger,  lost  his  pa- 
tience, when  a  corporal  of  his  company,  seeing  his  diffi- 
culties, said,  u  Wait,  I'll  get  it  for  thee."  Instantly, 
he  drew  a  knife,  cut  off  the  prelate's  finger,  and  handed 
it  to  the  soldier,  who,  having  pulled  off  the  ring,  threw 
the  finger  into  the  face  of  the  Cardinal.* 

The  fear  of  the  approaching  army  of  the  League,  alone, 
caused  a  diminution  of  murder  and  assassination.  The 
Chief  gave  orders  to  put  a  stop  to  plunder,  which  imme- 
diately ceased,  in  all  parts  of  the  city,  and  the  soldiers 
retired,  to  rest  themselves,  and  to  enjoy,  more  composed- 
ly, the  fruits  of  rapine. 

Tin1  Spaniards  had  left  a  very  strong  post  at  the  gates 
of  the  castle  St.  Angelo,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
Pope  and  the  Cardinals,  during  the  night,  with  the  im- 

*  It  would  appc.ir  from  \vli.-it  I'onap.irto  has  previously  stated,  that 
this  must  hnvi-  been  a  cardinal  on  the  Emperor's  side,  the  others  be 
ing  in  the  castle,  with  the  Pope. 


THE   SACK   OF   ROME.  255 

mense  riches  which  they  had  about  them,  in  the  castle. 
In  order  to  be  still  more  secure  of  their  object,  they  had 
given  order  to  some  colonels,  closely  to  besiege  the  cas- 
tle. These  immediately  traced  trenches,  and  caused  a 
very  deep  fosse  to  be  dug.  Criminals,  whom  they  had 
taken  out  of  the  prisons,  were  destined  for  this  work  ; 
they  were  guarded,  and  driven  on  in  their  work,  by  sol- 
diers. As  soon  as  the  trenches  were  finished,  the  regu- 
lar blockade  was  begun,  in  so  rigorous  and  cruel  a  man- 
ner, that,  one  day,  the  soldiers  having  found  an  old  wo- 
man, who  carried  lettuce,  for  the  table  of  the  Pope,  they 
hanged  her  in  front  of  the  castle.  They  likewise  killed, 
with  shot  from  an  arquebuse,  some  children  who  were 
gathering  herbs  and  placing  them  in  a  basket,  which  had 
been  let  down  from  the  bastions  of  the  castle. 

The  more  elevated  and  respectable  the  rank  of  their 
prisoners,  the  more  refined  and  prolonged  were  the  tor- 
ments they  had  to  endure.  Some  remained,  for  several 
days,  suspended  by  their  arms,  in  the  air  ;  others  were 
suspended  by  their  feet,  over  the  water,  and  threatened 
that  the  rope  should  be  cut,  if  they  would  not  discover 
their  treasures.  Many  were  unmercifully  beaten  ;  others 
burned  with  a  red-hot  iron,  in  various  parts  of  the  body. 
The  barbarians  invented  new  tortures  ;  they  drove  fine 
splinters  under  the  nails  of  the  fingers  or  toes  ;  they  poured 
molten  lead  into  the  throat ;  pulled  out  the  teeth  of  their 
victims  ;  and,  in  short,  mutilated  them,  in  all  possible  ways.  * 

Hieronymus  de  Camerino,  an  officer  in  the  household 
of  Cardinal  Cibo,  had  been  charged  by  the  Spaniards 
with  a  tax,  which  he  could  not  pay,  and  to  force  him, 
nevertheless,  to  do  it,  the  most  cruel  tortures  were  inflict- 
ed upon  him.  In  the  midst  of  them,  he  succeeded  in 

*  Fanaticism  and  avarice  have  been,  probably,  the  most  ingenious 
inventors  of  tortures  ;  at  least,  in  more  modern  times.  We  have 
only  to  remember  the  exquisitely-refined  tortures,  to  which  the  Span 
iards  subjected  the  Indians,  from  lust  for  gold,  or  the  means  of  tor 
turing  used  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  to  force  out  the  confession  of 
hidden  treasures.  Not  uncommon,  at  that  period,  was  the  slowly 
sawing  .sunder  of  the  tongue  with  a  horse-hair.  The  Inquisition 
comes  in,  likewise,  for  a  large  share  in  refined  ingenuity  for  the  pur- 
pose of  inflicting  pain. 


256  GREAT  EVENTS. 

approaching  a  window,  and,  seizing  upon  a  favorable  mo- 
ment, he  threw  himself  out,  head  foremost ;  and  thus,  by 
his  death,  defeated  their  cruelty  and  avarice. 

A  certain  John  Ansaldi,  a  Florentine,  had  been  sub- 
jected to  excruciating  torments,  and,  to  free  himself,  had 
promised  to  his  persecutors  a  thousand  dollars.  He 
counted  them  out,  when  these  barbarians  demanded  gold 
ducats.  As  he  had  none,  they  recommenced  tormenting 
him.  Incapable  any  longer  of  supporting  the  pain,  he 
threw  himself  upon  his  executioner,  tore  from  him  the 
dagger,  plunged  it  into  his  breast,  and  then,  turning  it 
toward  his  own,  buried  it  there. 

The  German  foot-soldiers  led  about,  in  the  streets, 
Roman  prelates,  decked  with  all  the  ornaments  and  in- 
signia of  their  dignity,  to  expose  them  to  the  ridicule  of 
the  people.  A  company  of  Lutherans,  likewise,  to 
mock  the  ceremonies  of  the  Roman  church,  carried 
Cardinal  Aracela  on  a  bier,  through  the  streets  of  Rome, 
singing,  at  the  same  time,  the  service  for  the  dead.  At 
last,  they  stopped  in  front  of  a  church,  where,  to  carry 
the  mockery  still  further,  they  pronounced  a  sort  of  fu- 
neral oration,  in  which  they  uttered,  instead  of  praise, 
revolting  obscenities  and  atrocious  calumnies.  Thence, 
they  carried  him  home,  and,  according  to  their  custom, 
they  rioted,  before  his  own  eyes,  in  brutal  orgies,  drink- 
ing his  best  wines  out  of  golden  vessels,  sacred,  on  ac- 
count of  the  church  service,  for  which  they  had  been 
destined.  The  same  Cardinal  was  seen  entering  several 
houses,  behind  some  German  or  Spanish  horsemen,  who 
thus  carried  him  about,  bound,  like  a  mean  criminal,  in 
order  to  borrow  the  sums  demanded  for  his  ransom. 

The  Cardinal  of  Sienna,  having  been,  at  all  times,  de- 
voted to  the  interests  of  the  Emperor,  as  his  ancestors 
had  likewise  been,  after  having  bought,  from  the  Span- 
iards, the  safety  of  his  house,  fell  into  tin?  hands  of 
"•rmans.  These  ravaged  his  palace,  l>eat  him  and 
carried  him  away  prisoner,  and  he  \vas  obliged  to  pay 
tin-in  live  thousand  dollars,  for  his  ransom.  The  Cardi- 
nal della  Minerva,*  arrd  the  other  prelates,  whether  Ro- 
*  There  is  a  church  in  Rome,  built  upon  the  foundation  of  an  an- 


THE   SACK   OF   ROME.  257 

man,  Spanish,  or  German,  were  forced  to  suffer,  in  like 
manner,  and  were  likewise  dragged  in  procession  through 
the  town,  to  amuse  the  populace. 

The  Marchioness  of  Mantua  was  taxed,  for  her  palace, 
at  the  rate  of  fifty  thousand  dollars,  which  were  paid  by 
merchants  and  other  people,  who  had  taken  refuge  with 
her.  It  has  been  said,  that  her  son,  Don  Fernando,  an 
officer  in  the  hostile  army,  obtained  ten  thousand  dollars 
of  this  sum,  for  his  share. 

One  of  our  compatriots,  Bernard  Bracci,  had  been 
discovered  and  arrested  by  some  lighthorse,  who  con- 
ducted him  to  the  bank  of  a  certain  German  merchant, 
of  the  name  of  Bartholomew,  where  he  went  to  obtain 
seven  thousand  dollars,  to  the  payment  of  which  he  had 
been  obliged  to  consent,  in  order  to  escape  death.  On 
their  way,  they  met,  on  the  Sixtine  bridge,  the  Marquis 
della  Motta,  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  army,  who  asked 
them  whither  and  for  what  purpose  they  were  carrying 
off  their  prisoner.  They  told  him  their  object,  and  the 
sum  they  had  agreed  to  take,  as  ransom.  u  This  ran- 
som," said  he,  uis  trifling  ;  throw  him  instantly  into  the 
Tiber,  if  he  does  not  pay  five  thousand  dollars  more,  on 
my  account."  The  soldiers  placed  their  prisoner  on 
their  shoulders,  to  throw  him  over  the  bridge  ;  but,  in  or- 
der to  save  his  life,  he  paid  the  additional  five  thousand 
dollars. 

The  Spaniards  respected  the  sacred  places,  and  did 
not  touch  the  relics  ;  but  they  surpassed  the  Germans,  in 
cruelty  and  perfidy.  When  once  the  fury  of  the  first 
shock  had  passed,  the  latter  did  not  inflict  any  additional 
bad  treatment  upon  their  prisoners.  They  contented 
themselves  with  such  sums  of  money,  as  had  been  volun- 
tarily offered  and  paid  to  them.  A  large  number  of  them 
even  showed  great  respect  for  young  and  beautiful  wo- 
men, treated  them  with  kindness  and  humanity,  and,  in 
order  to  remove  them  from  all  danger  of  outrage,  caused 

cient  temple  of  Minerva,  and  dedicated  to  Mary.  The  church, 
therefore,  is  called,  St.  Maria  sopra  Minerva.  The  above  Cardinal 
was  probably  bishop  or  priest  of  this  church,  and,  for  brevity's  sake, 
called  della  Minerva. 

22* 


258  GREAT   EVENTS. 

them  to  retire  into  safe  places.  Several  prisoners,  prof- 
iting by  the  good  disposition  of  these  Germans,  offered 
to  them,  as  soon  as  they  had  fallen  into  their  hands,  ran- 
soms, which  were  very  moderate,  in  proportion  to  their 
ability  to  pay.  Their  propositions  were  accepted,  with- 
out difficulty.  This  moderation,  on  the  part  of  the  Ger- 
man soldiers,  cannot  be  attributed  to  the  rich  booty  which 
they  possessed,  and  which  was  to  be  divided  among  a 
few,  nor  to  the  poverty,  which  overwhelmed  them,  at 
home,  and  which  might  have  made  sums,  quite  small,  in 
themselves,  appear  considerable,  in  their  eyes.  It  pro- 
ceeded from  a  greater  fund  of  humanity  and  equity.  The 
Spaniards,  on  the  contrary,  who  were  quite  as  poor  as  the 
Germans,  and  perhaps  even  poorer,  did  not  show,  either 
in  the  first  moment  of  victory  or  at  a  later  period,  so 
much  moderation,  in  the  pillage,  and  conducted  themselves 
with  far  less  consideration  toward  their  prisoners. 

We  have  seen  these  avaricious  and  cruel  enemies, 
mercilessly  glutting  their  enraged  temper  by  an  unbridled 
violence  to  all  Divine  and  human  things.  They  would 
not  suffer  a  single  spot  in  Rome  to  remain  sacred  from 
their  rage.  Some  palaces,  nevertheless,  had  escaped 
their  fury.*  Many  people  had  fled  to  them, — lawyers, 
merchants,  and  others, — whom  the  kindness  of  some  lords, 
who  were  able  to  make  themselves  respected  by  the  sol- 
diery, had  protected  against  the  first  impetuosity  of  the 
conquerors.  However,  when  the  latter  were  tired  of 
being  idle,  they  assembled  to  the  sound  of  fifes,  drums, 
and  trumpets,  and  arranged  themselves,  as  though  to  be- 
'^in  anew  the  siege  of  the  city.  They  then  furiously  at- 
tacked these  palaces,  not  caring  for  the  defence  which 
was  made,  nor  for  the  entreaties  nor  orders  of  their  su- 
periors, and  fired  upon  their  comrades,  who  defended  the 

*  There  is,  at  tho  end  of  the  French  translation  of  the  Sack  of 
Rome,  the  copy  of  a  contract,  properly  drawn  up  by  a  notary,  for 
-iom  of  one  of  these  palaces.  It  appear-;,  from  tin*  bftTMTOU 
Latin,  in  win <  h  i!  i-;  written,  that  ( 'ardinal  de  Vallo,  and  other  pre- 
lates, engag*  uormous  sums  and  give  up  certain  specified 
plate,  for  which  they  and  above  a  hundred  persons,  all  enumerated, 
shall  he  ranvMix  d.  The  persons  are  of  the  most  various  professions, 
trades,  sexes,  and  ages. 


THE   SACK  OF  ROME.  259 

palaces,  from  within.  When  they  were  repelled,  as  fre- 
quently happened,  they  revenged  themselves,  by  setting 
fire  to  the  houses  :  upon  this,  they  proceeded  to  pillage, 
unless  very  acceptable  propositions  were  made  to  them  ; 
that  is  to  say,  unless  enormous  ransoms  were  paid. 
Some  of  those,  who  had  first  treated  with  the  Spaniards, 
were  afterwards  pressed  by  the  Germans,  and  again  oblig- 
ed to  ransom  themselves,  or  see  their  houses  burned  down. 

The  conquerors  obtained  so  rich  a  booty,  that  the 
crosses,  images,  and  other  ornaments  of  silver,  the  sculp- 
tures, and  precious  paintings,  seized  by  them,  were  not 
estimated  at  a  fourth  part  of  their  real  value  ;  and  the 
things  which  they  prized,  above  all  others,  were  jewelry, 
and  pure  gold,  which  take  up  but  little  room.  When 
they  sold  these  objects,  they  valued  the  gold  only,  and 
asked  nothing  for  the  precious  stones,  which,  with  infinite 
art,  were  set  in  the  metal,  and  the  value  of  which  was 
much  higher  than  that  of  the  settings.  How  many  stat- 
ues of  marble  and  bronze,  sculptured  by  the  rarest  talent, 
how  many  medals  of  emperors,  kings,  and  popes,  pre- 
served for  many  centuries,  collected  with  the  greatest 
pains,  going  back  to  early  antiquity,  and  of  exquisite 
workmanship,  became,  in  one  moment,  the  prey  of  these 
barbarians  ?  Not  to  speak  of  all  the  articles  of  value, 
which  were  carried  off,  the  loss  is  valued  at  two  millions 
of  gold,  and  the  ransoms  imposed  amount  to  the  same 
sum. 

The  German  troops,  having  come  with  George  Fran- 
ensberg  almost  in  a  state  of  complete  nudity,  their  feet 
without  shoes,  their  clothes  in  tatters,  and  their  bodies 
attenuated  by  hunger,  were  suddenly  seen  superbly  dress- 
ed, in  beautiful  garments  of  brocade,  gold-cloth,  or  silk, 
decked  with  the  richest  chains  and  magnificent  bracelets, 
and  their  breasts  covered  with  jewels,  of  rare  beauty. 
These  new  lords  insolently  promenaded  through  the 
streets  of  the  city,  upon  mules,  which  belonged  to  the 
prelates,  and  amused  themselves  with  imitating  the  Pope 
and  cardinals.  They  had,  by  their  sides,  their  wives  or 
concubines,  in  embroidered  robes,  also  set  with  precious 
stones,  and  wearing  necklaces,  taken  from  the  sacred 


260  GREAT   EVENTS. 

vessels  in  which  the  host  is  elevated  or  sacred  relics 
exhibited,  or  from  the  mitres  or  precious  vestments  and 
ornaments  of  the  Pope.  In  their  train  followed  a  long 
suite  of  lackeys  and  pages,  in  fine  liveries. 

The  sumptuous  habitations  of  the  cardinals,  the  most 
majestic  churches,  and  the  chapel  of  the  Pope,  had  been 
transformed  into  stables.  Not  now  were  heard,  as  in 
times  of  peace,  chants  and  religious  hymns  ;  instead  of 
psalms  and  choirs,  their  walls  reechoed  the  oaths  and 
obscenities  of  the  grooms  who  curried  the  horses.  The 
crucifixes  were  riddled  with  balls  ;  the  paintings,  half 
burnt,  lay  about  on  the  ground,  where  they  and  the  relics 
were  trampled  upon,  by  men  and  horses. 

This  tyranny  of  the  conquerors  lasted,  not  for  days, 
nor  weeks,  but  whole  months  ;  and,  as  if  the  guilty  inhab- 
itants of  Rome  were  not  yet  sufficiently  chastised,  God 
added  still  another  calamity.  These  foreign  troops  were 
stricken  with  such  blindness,  and  impelled  by  so  short- 
sighted a  malignity,  that  they  continually  committed  vio- 
lence against  those  who  carried  provisions  into  town,  foi 
the  market.  Soon,  therefore,  nobody  dared  any  longer 
to  go  to  the  city,  which,  of  course,  remained  without 
sufficient  food.  The  soldiers  knew  no  longer  where 
they  should  find  any  thing  to  eat.  The  stores  in  B-ome 
as  well  as  in  the  country  were  exhausted.  After  having 
eaten  the  horses,  asses,  dogs,  cats,  and  even  rats,  which 
could  be  caught  in  the  houses,  the  lowest  classes  \\ere 
constrained  to  live  upon  roots,  herbs,  and  other  things, 
which,  although  they  may  be  masticated,  afibrd  hardly 
any  sustenance.  The  people  of  this  class  soon  ceased 
to  resemble  men,  but  looked  like  phantoms  or  living 
skeletons.  The  hunger,  which  devoured  them,  created 
a  great  mortality  among  them,  and  this,  in  turn,  caused 
a  plague.  There  was  not  a  street  in  Rome,  which  \vas 
not  encumbered  with  those,  dead  or  dying  of  pestilence, 
and  with  others,  who,  with  the  little  strength  yet  remain- 
ing in  them,  implored  death  to  put  an  end  to  their  suffer- 
ings. The  contagion  soon  passed  from  the  people  to  the 
soldiers  ;  it  advanced  from  house  to  house,  from  street  to 
street.  Its  rapidity  may  be  compared  to  those  artificial 


THE   SACK  OF  ROME.  261 

fires,  used  to  celebrate  public  festivals,  when  a  single 
spark,  in  falling  upon  the  powder,  suffices  to  set  the  whole 
on  fire,  and  all  the  single  parts  of  which  soon  catch  the 
consuming  flame,  one  from  the  other.* 

In  the  midst  of  these  cries  and  tears,  of  these  fires, 
and  incessant  devastations  by  death,  I  shall  endeavor  to 
describe  the  situation  of  the  Pontiff.  He  was  sufficiently 
humbled,  by  the  difference  of  his  past  grandeur  and  his 
present  low  condition.  How  often  did  he  turn  his  eyes, 
full  of  tears,  toward  heaven  !  He  beat  his  breast,  while 
exclaiming  :  "  Deus  meus  in  te  speravi  ;  salvum  me  fac 
ex  omnibus  persequentibus  me,  et  libera  me."f 

A  long  time  after  the  taking  and  sacking  of  the  city, 
Pompey  ColonnaJ  arrived,  and  seemed  much  to  enjoy 
the  wretched  extremity  to  which  the  Pope  was  reduced. 
Nevertheless,  when  he  came  to  see  destruction  and  death, 
every  where  ;  when  he  heard  weeping  and  sighing,  on  all 
sides  ;  and  when  he  met,  in  every  street,  children,  ladies, 
prelates,  and  noble  citizens,  imploring  assistance  and  call- 
ing out  for  compassion  ;  he  was,  in  turn,  affected  by  the 
most  painful  sentiments.  He  could  not,  at  the  sight  of 
all  the  miseries  of  the  city  and  the  environs,  restrain  his 
tears-;  and  his  grief  became  the  more  acute,  when  he 
considered  that  it  was'  himself  who  had  caused  the  ruin 
of  his  country,  without  having  succeeded  in  overthrowing 
the  power  of  his  enemy,  who  was  then  in  safety  in  the 
castle  St.  Angelo.  He  could  not  but  see,  that  he  him- 
self, the  instigator  of  this  invasion,  had  merited  that  all 
these  evils  should  have  broken  in  upon  him,  rather  than 

*  It  must  be  remembered,  that  these  feux  de  joie,  or  artificial  fire- 
works, were  then  something  new  and  rare  ;  the  comparison,  other- 
wise not  appropriate,  may  thus  be  excused. 

t  The  seventh  Psalm,  beginning,  in  the  English  translation,  "O 
Lord  !  my  God,  in  Thee  do  I  put  my  trust  ;  save  me  from  all  them 
that  persecute  me,  and  deliver  me." 

$  Pompey  Colonna  was  cardinal,  but  did  not  resign  his  military 
character  on  account  of  his  ecclesiastic  dignity.  He  repeatedly  re 
volted  against  the  Pope  ;  and,  in  1527,  cooperated  with  the  Imperial- 
ists. Still,  when  Pope  Clement  the  Seventh  was  a  prisoner  of  the 
Emperor,  he  zealously  strove  to  obtain  that  Pontiff 's  liberty,  who, 
in  gratitude,  restored  him  to  the  cardinalship,  of  which  he  had  been 
deprived. 


262  GREAT  EVENTS. 

upon  these  doomed  Romans,  whom  they  had  overwhelm- 
ed. He  was  of  a  generous  and  compassionate  nature, 
and  instantly  opened  his  house  to  the  unfortunate  inhabi- 
tants. He  possessed  much  influence  over  the  officers 
and  soldiers  of  the  army  ;  he  made  use  of  it,  to  protect 
the  honor  of  the  women,  to  prevent  the  repeated  vexa- 
tions to  which  the  citizens  had  been  exposed,  and  to  low- 
er the  ransoms  exacted  from  the  prisoners.  He  actually 
performed  these  services,  with  so  much  good  will,  zeal, 
and  humanity,  that,  within  a  short  time,  all  the  rooms  of 
his  palace,  from  the  cellar  to  the  roof,  were  filled  with 
poor  women  and  noble  ladies,  snatched  from  the  hands 
of  the  soldiers,  to  whom  their  ransom  had  been  paid, 
either  by  themselves  or  by  him.  The  Cardinal  likewise 
gave  an  asylum  to  the  other  cardinals,  who,  after  having 
been  abused  and  ill-treated  by  the  soldiery,  owed  their 
safety  and  delivery  to  him.  He  smoothed  the  difficulties 
between  the  soldiers  and  the  prisoners,  by  exhausting  his 
own  purse  ;  and  he  hastened  to  the  assistance  of  all  those, 
whose  life  he  understood  to  be  in  danger.  It  may  even 
be  said,  that  no  unfortunate  man  implored  his  assistance 
in  vain.  He  forgot  hatred  and  resentment,  and  assisted 
individuals,  formerly  his  enemies,  from  whom  he  had  been 
estranged,  on  account  of  political  differences,  or  for  more 
weighty  reasons.  A  lady  and  her  daughter,  of  the  noble 
family  of  Santa  Croce,  owed  to  him  their  ransom  from 
the  grasp  of  the  enemy.  It  was  only  in  one  instance 
that  Pornpey  Colonna  could  not  resist  his  feeling  of  re- 
venge,— when  he  gave  orders  to  burn  the  vineyard  of  the 
Pope,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Marius,  near  Ponte-Molle. 
Clement  the  Seventh,  espying  the  fire,  from  the  top  of  the 
castle,  turned  round  to  the  Cardinals,  and  said  :  "  Pom- 
pey  is  paying  me  a  debt.  I  have  caused  his  castles  in  the 
champagne  of  Rome  to  be  burnt ;  he  is  now  trying  to  re- 
|>;iy  me."  This  sight  gave  the  Pope  much  pain,  it  is  true  ; 
nevertheless,  he  did  not  throw  the  blame  upon  the  Car- 
dinal.* 

torical  criticism  must  ascertain,  if  it  can  be  done,  whether 
ilii-n-  is  much  truth  in  tlics.-  remarks,  or  whether  James  Bonaparte, 
perhaps  unconsciously,  made  the  most  of  a  few  instances  of  aid  af- 


THE   SACK  OP   ROME.  263 

The  life  which  the  Pontiff  led,  in  the  fort  St.  Angelo, 
was  at  all  times  exceedingly  painful.  But  it  became  still 
more  so,  when  he  saw  the  provisions,  of  which,  never- 
theless, only  the  most  necessary  portion  was  daily  con- 
sumed, fast  approaching  their  end.  In  spite  of  their  re 
pugnance,  he  and  the  cardinals  were  obliged  to  eat  asses7 
flesh.  In  this  impossibility  of  holding  out  any  longer,  on 
account  of  want  of  food,  he  proposed  to  surrender,  on  the 
following  conditions  : 

He  was  willing  to  subscribe,  in  anticipation,  to  the  de- 
sires of  the  Emperor,  which  he  felt  pleasure  in  supposing 
to  be  benevolent,  equitable,  and  worthy  of  a  son  of  the 
Church  :  he  would  discharge  the  arrears  of  pay  to  the 
Imperial  soldiers,  for  which,  liberty  and  his  dominions 
should  be  restored  to  him.  He  immediately  caused  the 
sacred  vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  which  he  had  succeed- 
ed in  carrying  along  with  him,  to  be  melted  down,  and 
money  to  be  coined  from  the  metal.  In  this  way,  he 
realized  three  hundred  thousand  dollars,  which  were,  how- 
ever, insufficient  to  satisfy  the  superior  officers,  and  stil) 
less  the  whole  body  of  soldiers. 

The  situation  of  the  Pontiff,  closely  besieged  in  his 
fort,  became,  as  we  have  seen,  more,  and  more  critical. 
To  fill  the  measure  of  evil,  the  pestilence  broke  out  among 
his  people.  Pompey,  urged  by  some  cardinals  who  were 
friendly  toward  him,  resplved  on  paying  a  visit  to  the 
Pope.  His  Holiness  said  to  the  cardinals,  near  him, 
that  he  hoped  no  longer  for  any  relief,  from  without ;  that 
there  was  no  hope,  except  in  the  lance  of  Achilles.  He 
thus  designated  Cardinal  Colonna,  who,  having  brought 
all  this  misery  upon  the  city,  was  more  able  than  any 
one  else,  to  find  the  proper  means  to  avert  its  further 

forded  by  Cardinal  Colonna.  For  Bonaparte  wrote,  perhaps,  when 
the  Cardinal  was  already  reconciled  to  the  Pope,  or  was  on  the  point 
of  being  so  ;  and  the  pen  of  one  of  the  household  officers  of  a  pope 
may  easily  have  been  guided,  in  some  degree,  by  the  respect  due  from 
him  to  a  person  so  eminent  in  the  Church,  and  so  powerful,  from  his 
connexion  with  one  of  the  proudest  and  most  elevated  of  the  baronial 
families.  Nevertheless,  the  freedom  with  which  he  writes,  respect- 
ing other  subjects,  in  subsequent  passages,  inclines  us  to  give  cre- 
dence to  these  remarks 


264  GREAT   EVENTS. 

duration.  When  Colonna  arrived  at  the  castle,  the  Haly 
Father  received  him  extremely  well ;  probably  also  with- 
out covert  thoughts.  Both  began  to  weep  at  the  disas- 
ters which  were  devastating  their  country,  at  the  disgrace 
into  which  the  sacerdotal  dignity  had  fallen,  and,  above 
all,  at  their  own  respective  folly,  which,  filling  their  souls 
with  a  fury,  unworthy  of  persons  clothed  with  a  sacred 
character,  had  attracted  the  foreign  enemy  to  the  heart 
of  their  country,  and  ended  with  breaking  <lown  the  es- 
tablishment consecrated  to  God.  They  agreed  upon 
the  means  by  which  Clement  the  Seventh  should  be  re- 
stored to  liberty.  Pompey  having  promised  to  use  his 
influence  with  the  ministers  of  the  Emperor,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  Pope's  delivery,  received  the  Papal  benedic- 
tion, and  departed. 

The  Pope,  nevertheless,  did  not  neglect  other  means, 
by  which  he  might  better  his  situation.  He  sent  a  legate 
to  King  Francis  the  First,*  and  another  to  Henry,  King 
of  England.  The  King  of  France,  it  was  said,  was 
about  sending  Lautrec,f  a  gallant  captain,  at  the  head  of 
a  goodly  army,  in  order  to  revenge  the  insults  which  had 
been  heaped  upon  the  chief  of  the  Church.  Clement, 
moreover,  sent  letters  and  negotiators  to  the  Emperor. 
But  the  soldiers,  and  especially  the  Germans,  showed  an 
inflexible  obduracy  ;  they  would  not  listen  to  any  arrange- 
ment, unless,  before  all,  their  arrears  were  duly  paid. 
The  Emperor  found  this  demand  perfectly  reasonable. 
He  charged  his  envoy,  Brother  Angioli,  to  communicate 
his  intentions  to  the  chiefs  of  the  army.  The  Pope 
should  reenter  into  the  plenitude  of  his  rights  ;  the  holi- 
ness of  his  dignity  demanded  respect ;  but  he  should 
provide  for  the  means  of  satisfying  the  Imperial  troops  ; 
ami  they  should  not  retire,  without  proper  hostages.  By 
moans  of  this  precaution,  the  Pope  would  find  himself 
incapable  to  do  much  harm  to  the  Kmpcror,  should  he  be 
disposed  to  resent  the  injuries  received  at  ilx-  hands  of 
this  Prince. 

*  King  of  France. 

t  Lautrec,  or  Lutrec,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  captain* 
of  this  age,  romiiKiixlmg  tin-  troop*  of  tin-  League. 


THE   SACK  OF  ROME.  265 

When  Clement  was  informed  of  these  conditions,  they 
seemed  to  him  excessively  hard.  He  was  at  the  mercy 
of  the  foreigners,  and  thus  it  was  impossible  for  him  to 
collect  as  much  money  as  was  demanded  of  him.  What 
credit  with  the  soldiers  or  merchants  could  he,  imprisoned 
as  he  was,  count  upon  ?  In  his  present  situation,  he 
could  inspire  no  confidence,  because  the  promises  which 
he  would  make,  in  order  to  be  freed  from  it,  would 
be  without  guarantee.  The  validity  of  the  obligations 
and  of  the  pledges,  consented  to  in  prison,  might  be 
impugned  and  destroyed  by  the  fact,  that  these  acts  had 
been  stipulated,  not  by  a  free  agent,  but  by  a  person  in  a 
state  of  coercion.  The  Germans,  in  particular,  obsti- 
nately refused  to  accept  of  the  notes  of  bankers.  Not 
content  with  so  much  booty,  amassed  in  the  city  which 
they  had  sacked,  they  threatened  to  put  the  whole  gar- 
rison of  the  castle  to  the  sword,  and  to  commence  with 
the  Pope  and  cardinals,  if  the  sums  demanded  were  not 
instantly  paid  down. 

There  was  no  means  left  of  evading  the  difficulty.  The 
Pope  was  obliged  to  give  sureties  for  the  acquittance  of 
the  contribution  of  war,  and  to  hand  over  to  the  Germans 
his  four  most  beloved  and  most  devoted  friends,  the  two 
Bishops  of  Pistoja  and  Verona,  and  the  two  Archbish- 
ops of  Siponte  and  Pisa.  To  these  hostages,  he  added 
two  of  his  near, relations,  James  Salviati  and  Lawrence 
Ridolfi,  renowned  for  their  opulence  and  high  nobility. 
When  the  Germans  had  these  six  personages  in  their  pow- 
er, they  made  them  instantly  feel  the  effects  of  their  cupid- 
ity. They  threatened  and  terrified  the  hostages,  in  all 
sorts  of  ways,  in  order  to  obtain  the  gold  which  was  de- 
manded ;  yet,  with  whatever  zeal  the  captives  proceeded, 
and  however  anxious  the  Pope  and  the  bankers  were  to  ac- 
quit themselves,  they  were  unable  to  succeed  in  realizing 
the  sum  agreed  upon.  The  enraged  soldiers  now  put 
their  hostages  in  chains,  like  vile  criminals,  and  caused 
them  to  be  led  to  the  Campo  di  Fieri,*  where  they 
placed  them  under  gibbets,  and  had  piquets  ready  to  ex- 

*  Flower  market. 
23  G.   E 


266  GREAT   EVENTS. 

ecute  them.  Had  the  people  or  the  other  soldiers  made 
the  slightest  stir  in  their  favor,  they  would  have  been 
lost  :  their  fate  was  decided.  Three  times  they  were 
conducted,  pale  and  trembling,  to  the  very  spot  of  exe- 
cution ;  three  times  were  they  saved  by  their  prayers, 
tears,  and,  above  all,  by  promises  to  acquit  themselves^ 
if  but  a  short  delay  were  granted  them.  They  obtained 
the  reprieve  demanded  ;  it  was  a  triumph  over  cruelty, 
gained  by  cupidity,  all  the  hopes  of  which  would  have 
been  destroyed  by  their  death. 

The  captives  went  about,  knocking  at  every  door,  in 
order  to  collect  the  necessary  sum,  while  their  friends 
made  sure  of  their  safety,  by  other  means.  Their  guards 
were  corrupted,  by  an  excellent  repast,  and  plied  with 
wines  drugged  with  opium.  These  soldiers,  occupied 
only  with  doing  honor  to  the  wine  and  the  savory  dain- 
ties, soon  fell  into  a  profound  sleep,  which  the  discharge 
of  artillery  could  not  have  interrupted.  This  was  the 
moment  waited  for  by  the  friends  of  the  hostages.  So 
soon  as  they  observed  that  the  wines  had  done  their  work, 
they  entered  the  rooms  where  the  hostages  were  in  chains. 
They  loosed  their  fetters,  and,  by  means  of  cords,  made 
them  ascend  through  the  chimney,  upon  the  roof,  from 
which,  with  proper  assistance,  the  fugitives  arrived,  in  the 
greatest  secrecy,  at  the  gates  of  Rome,  whence  they 
passed,  without  harm,  to  the  camp  of  the  Duke  of  Ur- 
bino,  at  this  time  stationed  in  Umbria.  In  this  manner, 
they  saved,  at  once,  their  fortunes  and  their  lives.  Their 
unexpected  and  surprising  flight  hastened  the  delivery  of 
the  Pope.  His  situation,  however,  was  not  immediately 
bettered.  The  German  soldiers  insisted  only  with  the 
more  urgency  upon  the  necessity  of  paying  them  off,  as 
the  condition  of  his  enlargement.  He  tried,  therefore, 
every  possible  means  of  getting  money,  but  none  showed 
any  hope  of  success,  except  only  one,  and  that  was,  to 
sell  some  cardinals'  hats  to  the  highest  bidder.  There 
were,  among  the  partisans  of  the  Emperor,  some  who 
aspired  to  this  dignity,  and  who  paid  the  money  down. 
By  this  means,  the  Pope  succeeded,  at  length,  in  obtain* 
ing  the  requisite  sum.  Surely,  this  expedient  was  neith- 


THE   SACK  OF  ROME.  26* 

er  honest  nor  delicate  ;  but,  in  this  cruel  difficulty,  IIP 
was  at  a  loss  what  else  to  do,  in  order  to  calm  the  impa 
tience  and  cupidity  of  the  soldiers. 

The  corruption  of  the  corpses,  abandoned,  without 
burial,  in  the  public  squares,  the  infectious  odor  of  the 
sewers,  the  incessant  changes  of  temperature,  and  thp 
want  of  suitable  nourishment,  had  engendered  the  pesti- 
lence, which  we  have  already  mentioned.  This  malady 
had  carried  off  a  great  many  soldiers,  among  whom  were 
observed  several  of  those  who  had  most  contributed  if 
the  devastation  of  the  convents. 

As  soon  as  the  soldiers  had  been  paid,  news  was  re 
ceived  of  the  advantages  gained  by  Lautrec,  general  of 
the  French  army.  The  German  and  Spanish  troops, 
whose  ranks  were  found  much  thinned,  by  death,  showed 
now  much  more  inclination  to  peace,  and  allowed  them- 
selves to  be  persuaded  by  their  chiefs  to  return  under 
their  authority,  and  to  follow  them,  wherever  the  service 
of  the  Emperor  should  require. 

The  Pope,  desirous  of  proving  his  good  disposition 
respecting  the  army,  and  the  attachment  which  he  had 
always  retained  for  the  Emperor,  engaged  himself  to 
place  in  their  power,  five  cardinals  of  their  own  selec- 
tion, as  hostages.  They  chose  three,  of  Venice,  Milan> 
and  Florence,  whose  relations  were  attached  to  the  op- 
posite party  ;  Cardinal  Pompey  selected  two  of  Rome. 
He  carried  them  to  one  of  his  country  residences,  where 
he  treated  them  with  the  greatest  respect  and  perfecf 
courtesy.  He  made  earnest  endeavors  to  keep  the 
pledge  which  he  had  given  to  the  Holy  Father  to  strive 
to  regulate  the  conventions  with  the  agents  of  the  Emper- 
or, relative  to  the  total  evacuation  of  the  territory  of 
Rome.  The  Pope  had  completely  succeeded  in  draw- 
ing him  into  his  own  interests,  by  means  of  brilliant 
promises.  Pompey  used  his  whole  influence  with  the 
Imperial  ministers,  to  induce  them  not  to  exact  the  rigor- 
ous conditions,  dictated  by  the  Emperor,  to  their  whole 
extent.  They  did  not  immediately  yield  ;  nevertheless, 
they  at  last  complied.  This  negotiation  was  conducted 
with  much  ability  by  the  Cardinal,  because  Don  Hugh, 


268  GREAT   EVENTS. 

a  man  without  faith  and  of  sinister  views,  had  retired  to 
Naples  witli  his  troops,  and  the  Prince  of  Orange  had 
quartered  his,  in  the  barracks. 

Clement  was  enlarged,  after  a  siege  of  seven  months, 
as  soon  as  the  peace  was  concluded.  He  had  announced 
his  resolution  to  leave  the  castle  St.  Angelo  within  three 
days  ;  yet  he  succeeded  in  escaping,  during  the  night, 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  sentinels.  He  took  the 
precaution  of  covering  his  head  with  a  slouched  hat,  of 
putting  on  a  common  dress,  and  disguising  his  face  with  a 
long  beard.  Thus  disguised,  he  passed  as  one  of  the 
servants  belonging  to  the  department  of  the  grand-master 
of  the  Papal  household.  He  carried  a  basket  under  his 
arm,  and  a  dorsel  and  some  empty  sacks  on  his  back. 
To  the  inquiries  of  the  sentinels  he  answered,  that  he  was 
sent  in  advance,  to  prepare  lodgings  on  the  route,  which 
the  Pope  was  to  take,  in  travelling  with  the  cardinals  to 
Viterbo,  and  that  he  was  to  procure  provisions  for  them. 
Thus  he  succeeded  in  leaving  the  castle,  and  escaping 
out  of  Rome,  through  a  secret  gate,  made  in  the  corner 
of  the  wall  which  encloses  the  garden  of  St.  Peter,  and 
the  keys  of  which  he  had  obtained,  the  evening  before, 
from  the  chief  gardener.  Here,  he  stepped  into  a  car- 
riage kept  ready  for  him,  by  Lewis  de  Gonzagua,  before 
mentioned,  whose  younger  brother  the  Pope  had  made 
cardinal.  Accompanied  by  a  single  peasant,  he  passed, 
by  night,  through  Celano,  and  the  forest  of  Boccano, 
took  some  refreshment  at  Capranica,  and  arrived,  by 
a  road  cut  through  the  rocks,  at  Orvieto,  a  fortified 
place. 

The  next  morning,  some  colonels  went  to  the  castle, 
to  pay  their  court  to  the  Pope.  They  knew  that  he 
heard  mass,  every  morning,  in  the  chapel,  and  therefore 
waited  some  time  for  him.  Part  of  the  day  had  already 
elapsed,  yet  he  did  not  make  his  appearance.  They 
then  inquired  of  the  body-servants,  whether  His  Holiness 
did  not  mean  to  rise  ;  that  the  day  was  far  advanced,  and 
that,  for  the  journey  he  meant  to  undertake,  it  would  be 
convenient  to  start  in  time,  because  the  road  was  bad 
and  the  Winter  days  very  short.  The  lackeys  knew 


THE   SACK  OF  ROME.  26? 

nothing.  However,  this  long  delay  began  to  appeal 
somewhat  suspicious  to  the  colonels  ;  and,  at  length, 
they  learned  that  the  Pope  had  deceived  them.  Indeed, 
in  these  disastrous  events,  he  had  become  acquainted 
with  their  character,  and  had  come  to  the  conclusion, 
that  it  was  best  to  trust  them  as  little  as  possible.  The 
Pope,  arriving  at  Orvieto,  at  the  moment  when  he  was 
least  expected,  was  perfectly  well  received  by  the  inhab- 
itants-, and  received  visits  from  a  multitude  of  distinguish- 
ed persons,  who  went  to  congratulate  him  upon  the  re- 
covery of  his  liberty.  He  remained  here,  until  he  had 
concluded  the  peace  with  his  majesty  the  Emperor, 
Charles  the  Fifth. 

Such  was  the  end  of  the  sack,  which  the  unhappy  city 
of  Rome  had  to  sustain.  After  the  departure  of  the 
Pope,  the  officers  and  soldiers,  laden  with  booty,  took 
the  road  for  Naples,  whither  they  were  sent  by  diverse 
routes,  in  order  to  arrest  the  rapid  progress  daily  making 
by  Lautrec,  general  of  the  King  of  France. 

23* 


270  GREAT  EVENTS. 


HENRY  VIII. ,  KING  OF  ENGLAND,  A^D  CATH- 
ARINE OF  ARRAGON,  HIS  QUEEN,  BEFORE 
THE  LEGATINE  COURT,  CONSISTING  OF  CAR- 
DINALS WOLSEY  AND  CAMPEGGIO,  IN  1527. 

BY    GEORGE    CAVENDISH. 

GEORGE  CAVENDISH  was  gentleman  usher*  to  Cardinal 
Wolsey.  He  was  a  faithful  attendant  to  this  princely  pre- 
late, not  only  in  the  days  of  triumphant  fortune,  but  also 
in  his  master's  banishment  and  adversity,  until  the  hour 
when  he  performed  for  his  once  powerful  patron  the  last 
sad  offices  of  humanity.  After  that,  he  sat  down,  in  his 
retirement,  to  write  a  faithful  picture,  as  he,  no  doubt,  be- 
lieved it  was,  of  the  man  who  so  long  wielded,  in  the  name 
of  Henry  VIII.,  the  highest  power  over  England.  Cav- 
endish seems  to  have  written  his  life  of  Wolsey,  with 
great  regard  to  truth,  frequently  stating  facts,  which 
leave  upon  the  reader  an  impression,  very  different  from 
the  spirit  in  which  the  author  gives  them.  Among  these 
latter,  I  count  the  relation  of  the  closing  scenes  of  Wol- 
sey Js  life.  This,  Cavendish  plainly  gives,  as  an  evidence 
of  the  meekness  of  that  fallen  man  ;  but  it  can  hardly  fail 
to  leave  upon  our  minds,  at  this  distance  of  time,  and  dis- 
connected, as  we  now  are,  from  all  personal  interest,  a 
different,  and  a  most  painful  impression.  For  we  see  a 
man,  highly  endowed  by  Nature,  utterly  wretched  and 
despairing,  because  he  had  lost  one  solitary  thing,  in 
which  he  had  bound  up  his  whole  existence,  and  which 
A^as  the  very  breath  of  his  life, — the  sunshine  of  royal 
SA\OT.  Without  fortitude,  without  the  dignity  and  con- 
sciousness of  worth,  we  see  him,  like  a  drowning  man, 
whom  a  buoyant  wave  lifts  once  more  above  his  destined 
grave,  catching  at  every  straw  which  the  fatal  element 
chances  to  carry  near  him,  or  which  his  eager  fancy  ima- 
gines to  be  floating  before  his  eyes.  We  cannot  withhold 
our  commiseration  from  the  victim  of  a  monarch  like 
Henry  ;  and  this,  the  rather,  perhaps,  that  we  see  him 
ptill  more  the  victim  of  his  own  unhappy  error.  He  has 

*  An  officer  who  has  the  earn  of  a  court,  hull,  chamber,  or  the  like, 
and  introduces  visitors. 


HENRY  VIII.     OF   ENGLAND,  AND  HIS  QUEEN.    271 

placed  his  whole  dependence  upon  something,  over  which 
he  has  no  final  control,  and  which  has  now  failed  him,  not 
upon  that,  which  is  within  him,  and  of  which  he  cannot  be 
robbed,  even  by  the  mightiest.  Shakspeare,  in  his  Henry 
VIII.,  does  not  allow  the  Cardinal  to  sink  so  low.  And 
he  is  right  ;  for  it  is  the  duty  of  the  poet,  to  restore  the 
hearer's  mind  to  a  calmness,  though  tinged  with  melan- 
choly, yet  superior  to  the  thrilling  pains  and  anxious  in- 
terest, which  may  have  been  excited  in  the  course  of  the 
play.  This  necessary  object  of  poetry  would  not,  it 
seems,  have  been  attained,  had  Shakspeare  allowed  the 
proud  prelate  not  only  to  fall  from  his  towering  height, 
but  to  sink  within  himself,  so  wretchedly  low,  stripped  of  all 
dignity  of  mirfd,  a  writhing  insect,  in  which  we  see  noth- 
ing but  unalleviated  pain.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  well 
known,  that  this  greatest  of  poets  has,  in  that  drama,  em- 
bodied, almost  literally,  several  passages  contained  in 
Cavendish's  Life  of  Wolsey.  This  composition  was  first 
printed  in  1641.  A  corrected  edition,  from  an  autograph 
manuscript,  was  published  in  1825,  under  the  title, — '  The 
Life  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,  by  George  Cavendish,  his  Gen- 
tleman Usher.  And  Metrical  Visions,  from  the  original 
autograph  Manuscript,  &c.  By  Samuel  Weller  Singer.' 
From  this  edition,  pages  144  to  166,  the  subjoined  extract 
is  taken. 

Henry  VIII.,  born  in  the  year  1491,  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther, in  1509.  A  few  months  after,  he  married  Catharine, 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  of  Arragon  and  Isabella  of  Cas- 
tile. Catharine  was  the  widow  of  Prince  Arthur,  the 
elder  brother  of  Henry.  Pope  Julius  II.  had  granted  a 
dispensation,*  for  the  marriage  of  Henry  with  his  brother's 
widow,  which  dispensation  had  been  in  England  six  years, 
before  it  was  used.  Henry  VIII.  was  a  tyrant  of  the 
worst  kind.  There  are  two  classes  of  tyrants  ; — some, 
filled,  indeed,  with,  and  not  hesitating  to  demand  any  sa- 
crifice to,  a  grasping  ambition,  do  still,  in  their  own  hearts, 
acknowledge  the  idea  of  the  State,  as  the  sovereign  idea 
of  their  lives.  They  consider  themselves,  it  is  true,  as 
having  so  close  a  personal  connexion  with  the  State,  that 
they  are  ready  to  demand  any  sacrifice  to  themselves,  as 
a  sacrifice  to  the  State  ;  but  they  are  likewise  ready  to 

*  Or  exemption  from  the  law  of  the  Church,  which  prohibited  a 
man  rom  marrying  the  widow  of  his  brother. 


272  GREAT  EVENTS. 

make  personal  sacrifices,  to  this,  their  highest  idea, — the 
glory  and  the  power  of  the  State.  There  are  other  ty- 
rants, of  a  coarse  stamp,  who  cannot  elevate  themselves 
so  high  ;  their  minds  are  circumscribed  and  wrapped  up 
in  gross  and  narrow  selfishness.  To  this  class,  unfortu- 
nately, Henry  belonged.  His  ideas  of  power  in  the  King, 
of  obedience  in  the  subject,  of  government  of  State, — 
every  thing,  in  short,  was  gross.  In  religion,  he  did  not 
elevate  himself  above  scholastic  questions  of  theology  ; 
nor  in  morals,  above  casuistical  formalities.  In  foreign 
policy,  he  did  not  penetrate,  through  pomp  and  ceremonial, 
to  the  essence  ;  in  domestic  politics,  the  increase  of  his 
own  wealth,  and  the  mere  acquisition  of  power,  formed 
the  ends  of  government.  Nowhere  do  welteee  him,  with 
judgement  and  perseverance,  plan,  develope,  sow,  and 
cultivate  ;  every  where,  we  find  him  hastily  breaking  down 
and  destroying.  Such  a  monarch,  sufficiently  selfish  to 
trample  down  any  thing  that  might  be  in  his  way,  and  so 
coarse,  as  to  regard  only  the  persons  of  his  opponents,  and 
to  be  content  with  removing  them  by  the  axe,  without  aim- 
ing to  overcome  the  principle  of  opposition,  was,  from  this 
very  grossness,  utterly  unable  to  prescribe  a  lofty  and 
firm  course  for  himself,  after  he  had  broken  down  all  the 
barriers,  which  had  opposed,  or  torn  the  ties,  which  had 
restrained,  him.  We  can  perceive,  in  Henry,  none  of  that 
strength  of  character  and  distinctness  of  purpose,  -which 
was  so  prominent  in  his  illustrious  daughter,  Elizabeth  ; — 
but  only  the  vehemence  of  coarse  passion.  A  man  of 
this  unhappy  constitution,  at  a  time  when  the  Reformation 
necessarily  loosened  so  many  ties, — a  time  which  was 

"  Sad,  high,  and  working,  full  of  state  and  wo,*' 

could  not  but  do  incalculable  mischief  to  his  country,  and 
infinite  injury  to  the  cause,  which,  with  the  wavering  ca- 
price of  an  arrogant  mind,  he  half  opposed,  half  supported. 
Henry,  having  now  lived,  for  eighteen  years,  in  perfect 
harmony  with  Queen  Catharine,  a  pious,  gentle,  and  ex- 
cellent lady,  pretended  to  feel  compunction  of  conscience, 
on  account  of  his  marriage  with  his  brother's  widow  ;  a 
connexion  prohibited  by  the  law  of  Moses.  The  reader 
must  consult  the  history  of  England,  for  tlir  details  of  this 
affair  ;  suffice  it  here  to  say,  that  any  real  compunction, 
on  the  part  of  Henry,  is  rendered  incredible,  by  the  fact, 
that  he  made  no  serious  manifestation  of  it,  before  he  was 


HENRY  VIII.  OP  ENGLAND,  AND  HIS  QUEEN.  273 

in  love  with  Anne  Boleyn,  a  lady  attached  to  Catharine's 
court  ;  by  his  hasty  marriage  with  her,  immediately  after 
the  divorce  had  been  pronounced  ;  and  by  his  subsequent 
behavior  toward  his  wives.  Henry  was  one  of  those  men, 
whose  selfishness  will  not  suffer  their  desires  to  be  thwart- 
ed, but  who  have  not  sufficient  strength  of  mind  to  break, 
at  once,  through  all  forms,  and  who  endeavor  to  appease 
their  own  conscience  by  continuing  the  observance  of 
forms,  as  long  as  possible.  He  was  anxious  that  the  Pope 
should  pronounce  his  marriage  null  and  void,  as  inconsist- 
ent with  the  law  of  God.  After  repeated  importunate  pe- 
titions to  this  effect,  the  Pope  agreed  to  send  to  England 
a  cardinal,  who,  together  with  Cardinal  Wolsey,  should 
form  a  legatine  court,  before  which,  the  validity  of 
Henry's  marriage  might  be  tried.  Henry,  in  whom  sel- 
fishness, and  that,  too,  of  a  most  unrefined  character,  form- 
ed so  prominent  a  trait,  could  never  raise  himself  to  the 
feelings  of  a  gentleman  ;  and  he,  who  adored  the  idol  of 
his  own  power,  nevertheless,  allowed  himself  and  his  wife 
to  be  cited  to  appear  in  court,  in  his  own  kingdom.  Should 
the  court  pronounce  that  judgement,  which  he  so  ardently 
desired,  he  would  not  only  publicly  thrust  a  faithful  and 
virtuous  companion  from  him,  and  offend  her  nephew,  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  but  would  declare  his  own  daughter 
the  issue  of  an  illegitimate  union.  In  this  respect,  the 
trial  was,  in  the  highest  degree,  scandalous.  In  regard  to 
Henry,  who  evidently  had  made  up  his  mind,  it  was  a 
farce.  But  we  must  consider  it,  also,  with  reference  to 
Catharine.  The  daughter  of  two  renowned  monarchs,  a 
pious  and  innocent  woman,  alone,  in  a  country  which  had 
not  given  her  birth,  she  is  dragged  into  open  court,  where 
her  king  and  husband,  aided  by  obsequious  courtiers, 
makes  wicked  mockery  of  conscience  and  religion.  She 
is  a  mother,  a  royal  mother,  whose  offspring  is  to  be  de- 
clared illegitimate  ;  a  wife,  about  to  be  repudiated  by  the 
husband  whom  she  had  faithfully  loved  and  obeyed  ;  a 
Queen,  from  whose  innocent  head  a  crown  is  to  be  pluck- 
ed, to  be  placed  upon  other  and  younger  brows.  She  is 
a  woman,  of  an  age  which  does  not,  of  itself,  usually  in- 
spire a  tender  interest,  yet  young  enough,  to  feel  all  the 
pangs,  caused  by  the  prospect  of  a  long,  dishonored  life  ; 
a  devout  and  confiding  Christian,  who  sees  the  most  sa- 
cred forms  of  religion  shamelessly  turned  against  her. 
When  we  consider  the  trial  in  these  respects,  it  forms  a 
tragedy  of  the  saddest  interest. 


274  GREAT  EVENTS. 


LONG  was  the  desire,  and  greater  was  the  hope,  on 
all  sides,  expecting  the  coming  of  the  legation  and  com- 
mission from  Rome  ;  yet,  at  length,  it  came.  And 
after  the  arrival  of  the  Legate  Campeggio,  with  this  sol- 
emn commission,  in  England,  he,  being  sore  vexed  with 
the  gout,  was  constrained,  by  force  thereof,  to  make  a 
long  journey,  before  he  came  to  London.  He  should 
have  been  most  solemnly  received  at  Blackheath,  and  so 
with  great  triumph  conveyed  to  London  ;  but  his  glory 
was  such,  that  he  would  in  nowise  be  entertained  with 
any  such  pomp  or  vain  glory  ;  and  he  suddenly  came, 
by  water,  in  a  wherry,  to  his  own  house,  without  Temple 
Bar,  (called,  then,  Bath  Place,)  which  was  furnished 
for  him  with  all  manner  of  stuff  and  implements,  of  my 
lord's  provision,*  where  he  continued  and  lodged,  during 
his  abode  here  in  England. 

Then,  after  some  deliberation,  his  commission  under- 
stood, read,  and  perceived,  it  was  by  the  council  deter- 
mined, that  the  King,  and  the  Queen  his  wife,  should  be 
lodged  at  Bridewell.  And  that  in  the  Black  Friars,  a 
certain  place  should  be  appointed,  where  the  King  and 
the  Queen  might  most  conveniently  repair  to  the  court, 
there  to  be  erected  and  kept  for  the  disputation  and  de- 
termination of  the  King's  case,  where  these  two  legates 
sat  in  judgement,  as  notable  judges  ;  before  whom  the 
King  and  the  Queen  were  duly  cited  and  summoned  to 
appear.  Which  was  the  strangest  and  newest  sight  and 
device  that  ever  was  read  or  heard,  in  any  history  or 
chronicle,  in  any  region  ;  that  a  King  and  a  Queen 
[should]  be  conventedf  and  constrained,  by  process  com- 
pellatoryf  to  appear  in  any  court,  as  common  persons, 
within  their  own  realm  or  dominion,  to  abide  the  judge- 
ment and  decrees  of  their  own  subjects,  having  the  royal 
diadem  and  prerogative  thereof. 

Ye  shall  understand,  as  I  said  before,  that  there  was  a 
court  erected  in  the  Black  Friars,  in  London,  where  these 

*  That  ii,  of  Cardinal  Woliey  V 

t  Contented,— called  before  a  jtfdge,  or  court  of  law. 

t  Compellalory, — having  the  foioc  of  compelling,  compulsatorj. 


HENRY  VIII.   OF   ENGLAND,  AND  HIS  QUEEN.     275 

two  cardinals  sat  for  judges.  Now  will  I  set  you  out  the 
manner  and  order  of  the  court,  thelfe.  First,  there  was 
a  court  placed  with  tables,  benches,  and  bars,  like  a  con- 
sistory, a  place  judicial,  (for  the  judges  to  sit  on.) 
There  was  also  a  cloth  of  estate,  under  the  which  sat 
the  King  ;  and  the  Queen  sat,  some  distance  beneath  the 
King.  Under  the  judges'  feet,  sat  the  officers  of  the 
court.  The  chief  scribe,  there,  was  Dr.  Stephens,* 
(who  was,  after,  Bishop  of  Winchester  ;)  the  apparitorf 
was  one  Cooke,  most  commonly  called  Cooke  of  Win- 
chester. Then  set,  there,  within  the  said  court,  directly 
before  the  King  and  the  judges,  the  Archbishop  of  Can 
terbury,  Doctor  Warham,  and  all  the  other  bishops. 
Then,  at  both  the  ends,  with  a  bar  made  for  them,  the 
counsellors  on  both  sides.  The  doctors  for  the  King 
were  Doctor  Sampson,  that  was,  after,  Bishop  of  Chi- 
chester,  and  Doctor  Bell,  who  after  was  Bishop  of 
Worcester,  with  divers  other.  The  proctors  on  the 
King's  part  were  Doctor  Peter,  who  was  after  made 
the  King's  chief  secretary,  and  Doctor  Tregonell,  and 
divers  other. 

Now,  on  the  other  side,  stood  the  counsel  for  the 
Queen,  Doctor  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  and  Doc- 
tor Standish,  sometime  a  Gray  Friar,  and  then  Bishop 
of  St.  Asaph,  in  Wales,  two  notable  clerks  in  divinity, 
and,  in  especial,  the  Bishop  of  Rochester,  a  very  godly 
man,  and  a  devout  person,  who  after  suffered  death  at 
Tower  Hill ;  the  which  was  greatly  lamented  through  all 
the  foreign  Universities  of  Christendom.  There  was 
also  another  ancient  doctor,  called,  as  I  remember, 
Doctor  Ridley,  a  very  small  person  in  stature,  but  surely 
a  great  and  excellent  clerk  in  divinity. 

The  court  being  thus  furnished  and  ordered,  the  judges 
commanded  the  crier  to  proclaim  silence.  Then  was 
the  judges'  commission,  which  they  had  of  the  Pope, 
published,  and  read,  openly,  before  the  audience  there 
assembled.  That  done,  the  crier  called  the  King  by 
the  name  of  u  King  Henry  of  England  !  come  into  the 

*  Dr.  Stephen  Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester. 

t  The  lowest  officer  of  an  ecclesiastical  court,  a  summoner. 


276  GREAT  EVENTS. 

court,"  &c.  With  that,  the  King  answered  and  said, 
"  Here,  my  lords  !'*  Then  he  called  also  the  Queen, 
by  the  name  of  "  Catharine,  Queen  of  England,  come 
into  the  court,"  &c.,  who  made  no  answer  to  the  same, 
but  rose  up  incontinent*  out  of  her  chair,  where  she  sat  ; 
and,  because  she  could  not  come  directly  to  the  King, 
for  the  distance  which  severed  them,  she  took  pains  to 
go  about  unto  the  King,  kneeling  down  at  his  feet,  in  the 
sight  of  all  the  court  and  assembly,  to  whom  she  said, 
in  effect,  in  broken  English,  as  followeth  :f 

u  Sir,"  quoth  she,  "I  beseech  you,  for  all  the  love 
that  hath  been  between  us,  and  for  the  love  of  God,  let 
me  have  justice  and  right ;  take  of  me  some  pity,  and 
compassion,  for  I  am  a  poor  woman  and  a  stranger,  born 
out  of  your  dominion.  I  have,  here,  no  assured  friend, 
and  much  less  indifferent  counsel.  I  flee  to  you,  as  to 
tho  head  of  justice  within  this  realm.  Alas  !  Sir, 
wherein  have  I  offended  you,  or  what  occasion  of  dis- 
pleasure [have  I  given  you  ?]  Have  I  designed  against 
your  will  and  pleasure  ;  intending  (as  I  perceive)  to  put 
me  from  you  ?  I  take  God,  and  all  the  world,  to  wit- 
ness, that  I  have  been  to  you  a  true,  humble,  and  obe- 
dient wife,  ever  conformable  to  your  will  and  pleasure, 
that  never  said  nor  did  any  thing  to  the  contrary  thereof, 
being  always  well  pleased  and  contented  with  all  things 
wherein  you  had  any  delight  or  dalliance  ;  whether  it 
were  in  little  or  much,  I  never  grudged,  in  word  or  coun- 
tenance, or  showed  a  visage  or  spark  of  discontent.  I 
loved  all  those  whom  ye  loved,  only  for  your  sake, 
whether  I  had  cause  or  no  ;  and  whether  they  were  my 
friends  or  my  enemies.  This  twenty  years,  or  more,  1 
have  been  your  true  wife,  and  by  me  ye  have  had  divers 
children,  although  it  hath  pleased  God  to  call  them  out 
of  this  world,  which  hath  been  no  default  in  me. 

"  And  when  ye  had  me,  at  the  first,  I  take  God  to  be 

*  Immediately. 

t  Some  hnve  denied  the  fact,  tint  th<-  King  and  Queen  were  present 
.•it  tin-  trial;  for  iii^t.m<-r.  Bishop  Hurnct,  in  IIK  I  li-tory  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, Vol.  III.  pp.  46-48  ;  bnt  it  seems  to  be  now  well  established,  by 
several  concurrent  proofs,  that  those  high  personages  did  actually  ap- 
pear. 


HENRY  VIII.    OF  ENGLAND,  AND  HIS   QUEEN.      277 

my  judge,  I  was  a  true  maid  ;  and,  whether  it  be  true  or 
no,  I  put  it  to  your  conscience.  If  there  be  any  just 
cause,  by  the  law,  that  ye  can  allege  against  me,  either 
of  dishonesty,  or  any  other  impediment,  to  banish  and  put 
me  away  from  you,  I  am  well  content  to  depart,  to  my 
great  shame  and  dishonor  ;  arid,  if  there  be  none,  then 
here  I  most  lowly  beseech  you,  let  me  remain  in  my  for- 
mer estate,  and  receive  justice  at  your  hands.  The  King, 
your  father,  was,  in  the  time  of  his  reign,  of  such  estima- 
tion, throughout  the  world,  for  his  excellent  wisdom,  that 
he  was  accounted  and  called,  of  all  men,  the  second  Sol- 
omon ;  and  my  Father,  Ferdinand,  King  of  Spain,  who 
was  esteemed  to  be  one  of  the  wittiest  princes  that  reign- 
ed in  Spain,  many  years  before,  were  both  wise  and  ex- 
cellent kings  in  wisdom  and  princely  behavior.  It  is  not, 
therefore,  to  be  doubted,  but  that  they  elected  and  gath- 
ered as  wise  counsellors  about  them,  as  to  their  high  dis- 
cretions was  thought  meet.  Also,  as  me  seemeth,  there 
was,  in  those  days,  as  wise,  as  well  learned,  men,  and 
men  of  as  good  judgement,  as  be,  at  this  present,  in  both 
realms,  who  thought,  then,  the  marriage  between  you  and 
me  good  and  lawful.  Therefore,  it  is  a  wonder  to  hear 
what  new  inventions  are  now  invented  against  me,  (that 
never  intended  but  honesty,)  and  cause  me  to  stand  to  the 
order  and  judgement  of  this  new  court,  wherein  ye  may 
do  me  much  wrong,  if  ye  intend  any  cruelty  ;  for  ye  may 
condemn  me  for  lack  of  sufficient  answer,  having  no  in- 
different counsel  but  such  as  be  assigned  me,  with  whose 
wisdom  and  learning  I  am  not  acquainted.  Ye  must  con- 
sider, that  they  cannot  be  indifferent  counsellors  for  my 
part,  which  be  your  subjects,  and  taken  out  of  your  own 
council,  before,  wherein  they  be  made  privy,  and  dare 
not,  for  your  displeasure,  disobey  your  will  and  intent, 
being  once  made  privy  thereto.  Therefore,  I  most  hum- 
bly require  you,  in  the  way  of  charity,  and  for  the  love  of 
God,  who  is  the  just  Judge,  to  spare  me  the  extremity 
of  this  new  court,  until  I  may  be  advertised  what  way  and 
order  my  friends  in  Spain  will  advise  me  to  take.  And 
if  ye  will  not  extend  to  me  so  much  indifferent  favor,  your 
pleasure  then  be  fulfilled,  and  to  God  I  commit  my  cause  !" 

24  G.   E. 


278  GREAT  EVENTS. 

And  with  that,  she  rose  up,  making  a  low  courtesy  to 
the  King,  aid  so  departed  thence.  [Many]  supposed 
that  she  would  have  resorted  again  to  her  former  place ; 
hut  she  took  her  way  straight  out  of  the  house,  leaning 
(as  she  was  wont  always  to  do)  upon  the  arm  of  her  Gen- 
eral Receiver,  called  Master  Griffith.  And  the  King, 
being  advertised  of  her  departure,  commanded  the  crier 
to  call  her  again,  who  called  her  by  the  name  of  "  Cath- 
erine, Queen  of  England,  come  into  court,"  &c.  With 
that,  quoth  Master  Griffith,  "  Madam,  ye  be  called 
again."  "  On,  on,"  quoth  she,  "it  maketh  no  matter, 
for  it  is  no  indifferent  court  for  me  ;  therefore,  I  will  not 
tarry.  Go  on  your  ways."  And  thus  she  departed  out 
of  that  court,  without  any  further  answer  at  that  time,  or  at 
any  other,  nor  would  ever  appear  at  any  other  court,  after. 

The  King,  perceiving  that  she  was  departed  in  such 
sort,  calling  to  his  Grace's  memory  all  her  lamentable 
words,  that  she  had  pronounced  before  him  and  all  the 
audience,  said  thus,  in  effect :  "  Forasmuch  as  the  Queen 
is  gone,  I  will,  in  her  absence,  declare  unto  you  all,  my 
lords,  here  presently  assembled,  she  hath  been'to  me  as 
true,  as  obedient,  and  as  comfortable,  a  wife,  as  I  could, 
in  my  fantasy,  wish  or  desire.  She  hath  all  the  virtuous 
qualities  that  ought  to  be  in  a  woman  of  her  dignity,  or  in 
any  other,  of  baser  estate.  Surely,  she  is  also  a  noble  wo- 
man born,  if  nothing  were  in  her,  but  only  her  conditions, 
[they]  will  well  declare  the  same."  With  that,  quoth  my 
Lord  Cardinal,  "  Sir,  I  most  humbly  beseech  your  high- 
ness to  declare  me  before  all  this  audience,  whether  I  have 
been  the  chief  inventor  or  first  mover  of  this  matter  unto 
your  majesty  ;  for  I  am  greatly  suspected  of  all  men  here- 
in." "My  Lord  Cardinal,"  quoth  the  King,  "lean 
well  excuse  you  herein.  Marry,  ye  have  been  rather 
against  me,  in  attempting  or  setting  forth  thereof.  And 
to  put  you  all  out  of  doubt,  I  will  declare  unto  you  the 
special  cause  that  moved  me  hereunto  ;  it  was  a  certain 
scrupulosity  that  pricked  my  conscience,  upon  divers  u»r< Is 
that  were  spoken,*  at  a  certain  time,  by  the  Bishop  of  Bay- 

•  Nothing  of  this  kind  ia  to  be  found  in  the  Journal  of  this  embassy, 
nor  ia  the  letter*  of  the  Bishop  and  his  companions,  which  have  been 


HENRY  VIII.   OF   ENGLAND,  AND  HIS   QUEEN.     279 

onne,  the  French  King's  Ambassador,  who  had  been 
here  long  upon  the  debating,  for  the  conclusion  of  a  mar- 
riage to  be  concluded  between  the  princess,  our  daughter 
Mary,  and  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  French  King's  sec- 
ond son. 

"  And  upon  the  resolution  and  determination  thereof, 
he  desired  respite,  to  advertise  the  King  his  master  there- 
of, whether  our  daughter  Mary  should  be  legitimate,  in 
respect  of  the  marriage  which  was  sometime  between  the 
Queen  here,  and  my  brother,  the  late  Prince  Arthur. 
These  words  were  so  conceived  within  my  scrupulous 
conscience,  that  it  bred  a  doubt  within  my  breast,  which 
doubt  pricked,  vexed,  and  troubled  so  my  mind,  and  so 
disquieted  me,  that  I  was  in  great  doubt  of  God's  indig- 
nation ;  which  (as  seemed  me)  appeared  right  well ;  much 
the  rather,  for  that  he  hath  not  sent  me  any  issue  male  ; 
for  all  such  issue  male  as  I  have  received  of  the  Queen, 
died  incontinent*  after  they  were  born  ;  so  that  I  doubt 
the  punishment  of  God  in  that  behalf.  Thus,  being  trou- 
bled in  waves  of  a  scrupulous  conscience,  and  partly  in 
despair  of  any  issue  male  by  her,  it  drave  me,  at  last,  to 
consider  the  estate  of  this  realm,  and  the  danger  it  stood 
in,  for  lack  of  issue  male  to  succeed  me  in  this  imperial 
dignity.  I  thought  it  good,  therefore,  in  relief  of  the 
weighty  burden  of  scrupulous  conscience,  and  the  quiet 
estate  of  this  noble  realm,  to  attempt  the  law  therein,  and 
whether  I  might  take  any  wife,  in  case  that  my  first  mar- 
riage with  this  gentlewoman  were  not  lawful ;  which  I  in- 
tend not  for  any  displeasure  or  mislike  of  the  Queen's 
person  or  age,  with  whom  I  could  be  as  well  content  to 
continue,  during  my  life,  if  our  marriage  may  stand  with 
God's  laws,  as  with  any  woman  alive  ;  in  which  point, 
consisteth  all  this  doubt,  that  we  go  now  about  to  try,  by 
the  learned  wisdom  and  judgement  of  you,  our  prelates 
and  pastors  of  this  realm,  here  assembled  for  that  purpose  ; 
to  whose  conscience  and  judgement,  I  have  committed 

preserved,  and  many  of  which  have  been  published  by  Le  Grand, 
Histoire  du  Divorce  de  Henri  VIII. — Note  of  the  English  Editor. 

*  Immediately. 


280  GREAT  EVENTS.      . 

the  charge,  according  to  the  which,  (God  willing,)  we  will 
be  right  well  contented  to  submit  ourself,  to  obey  the  same, 
for  our  part.  Wherein,  after  I  once  perceived  my  con- 
science wounded  with  the  doubtful  case  herein,  I  moved, 
first,  this  matter  in  confession  to  you,  my  Lord  of  Lin- 
coln,* my  ghostly  father.  And,  forasmuch  as  then  your- 
self were  in  some  doubt  to  give  me  counsel,  moved  me 
to  ask  further  counsel  of  all  you,  my  lords  ;  wherein  I 
moved  you,  first,  my  Lord  of  Canterbury,  asking  your 
license,  (forasmuch  as  you  were  our  Metropolitan,)  to  put 
this  matter  in  question  ;  and  so  I  did  of  all  you,  my  lords, 
to  the  which  ye  have  all  granted,  by  writing,  under  all  your 
seals,  the  which  I  have  here  to  be  showed."  u  That  is 
truth,  if  it  please  your  highness,"  quoth  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  ;  "  I  doubt  not,  but  all  my  brethren,  here 
present,  will  affirm  the  same."  "  No,  Sire,  not  I,"  quoth 
the  Bishop  of  Rochester;  u  ye  have  not  my  consent  there- 
to." "  No  ?"  quoth  the  King,  "  look  here,  upon  this,  is 
not  this  your  hand  and  seal  ?"  and  showed  him  the  in- 
strument with  seals.  "  No,  forsooth,  Sire,"  quoth  the 
Bishop  of  Rochester,  "  it  is  not  my  hand  nor  seal  !"  To 
that,  quoth  the  King  to  my  Lord  of  Canterbury,  "  Sir. 
how  say  ye,  is  it  not  his  hand  and  seal  ?"  "  Yes,  Sire," 
quoth  my  Lord  of  Canterbury.  "  That  is  not  so,"  quoth 
the  Bishop  of  Rochester,  "  for  indeed  you  were  in  hand 
with  me,  to  have  both  my  hand  and  seal,  as  other  of  my 
lords  had  already  done  ;  but  then  I  said  to  you,  that  I 
would  never  consent  to  no  such  act,  for  it  were  much 
against  my  conscience  ;  nor  my  hand  and  seal  should 
never  be  seen  at  any  such  instrument,  God  willing,  with 
much  more  matter,  touching  the  same  communication,  be- 
tween us."  "  You  say  truth,"  quoth  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  "such  words  ye  said  unto  me  ;  but,  at  the 
last,  ye  were  fully  persuaded,  that  I  should  for  you  sub- 
scribe your  name,  and  put  a  seal  myself,  and  ye  would 
allow  the  same."  "  All  which  words  and  matter,"  quoth 
the  Bishop  of  Rochester,  "  under  your  correction,  my 
lord,  and  supportationf  of  this  noble  audience,  there  is 

•  Woleey  was  Bishop  of  Lincoln. 

t  Support, 


HENRY  VIII.   OF  ENGLAND,  AND  HIS  QUEEN.     281 

no  thing  more  untrue."  "  Well,  well,"  quoth  the  King, 
"  it  shall  make  no  matter,  we  will  not  stand  with  you  in 
argument  herein,  for  you  are  but  one  man."  And  with 
that,  the  court  was  adjourned  until  the  next  day  of  this 
session. 

The  next  court  day,  the  cardinals  sat  there,  again,  at 
which  time,  the  counsel,  on  both  sides,  were  there  pres- 
ent. The  King's  counsel  alleged  the  marriage  not  good, 
from  the  beginning,  because  of  the  marriage  between 
Prince  Arthur,  her  first  husband,  the  King's  brother,  and 
her.  This  matter  being  very  sore  touched  and  maintained 
by  the  King's  counsel ;  and  the  contrary  defended  by 
such  as  took  upon  them  to  be  on  that  other  part,  with  the 
good  Queen.  It  was  answered  again,  negatively,  on  the 
other  side,  by  which  it  seemed,  that  all  their  former  alle- 
gations [were]  very  doubtful  to  be  tried,  so  that  it  was  said, 
that  no  man  could  know  the  truth.  u  Yes,"  quoth  the 
Bishop  of  Rochester,  u  Ego  nosco  veritatem  ;"  [I  know 
the  truth.]  "  How  know  you  the  truth  ?"  quoth  my  Lord 
Cardinal.  "  Forsooth,  my  lord,"  quoth  he,  "  Ego  sum 
professor  veritatis  ;  [I  am  a  professor  of  the  truth.]  I 
know  that  God  is  truth  itself,  nor  He  never  spake  but 
truth  ;  who  saith,  c  quos  Deus  conjunxit,  homo  non  sepa- 
ret ;'  [whom  God  hath  joined,  let  no  man  put  asunder.] 
And  forasmuch  as  this  marriage  was  made  and  joined  by 
God,  to  a  good  intent,  I  say,  that  I  know  the  truth  ;  the 
which  cannot  be  broken  or  loosed  by  the  power  of  man, 
upon  no  feigned  occasion."  u  So  much,  doth  all  faithful 
men  know,"  quoth  my  Lord  Cardinal,  u  as  well  as  you. 
Yet  this  reason  is  not  sufficient  in  this  case  ;  for  the  King's 
counsel  doth  allege  divers  presumptions,  to  prove  the 
marriage  not  good  at  the  beginning,  ergo,  [consequently,] 
say  they,  it  was  not  joined  by  God,  at  the  beginning,  and 
therefore,  it  is  not  lawful ;  for  God  ordaineth  nor  joineth 
nothing  without  a  just  order.  Therefore,  it  is  not  to  be 
doubted,  but  that  these  presumptions  must  be  true,  as  it 
plainly  appeareth  ;  and  nothing  can  be  more  true,  in  case 
these  allegations  cannot  be  avoided  ;  therefore,  to  say  that 
the  matrimony  was  joined  of  God,  ye  must  prove  it,  fur- 
ther than  by  that  text  which  ye  have  alleged  for  your  mat- 
24* 


282  GREAT  EVENTS. 

ter;  for  ye  must  first  avoid  the  presumptions."  "  Then," 
quoth  Dr.  Ridley,  "  it  is  a  shame,  and  a  great  dishonor 
to  this  honorable  presence,  that  any  such  presumptions 
should  be  alleged,  in  this  open  court,  which  be,  to  all 
good  and  honest  men,  most  detestable  to  be  rehearsed." 
"  What  !"  quoth  my  Lord  Cardinal,  "  Domine  Doctor, 
magis  revertnter ;"  [more  reverently,  Master  Doctor.] 
"  No,  no,  my  Lord,"  quoth  he,  "there  belongeth  no  rever- 
ence to  be  given  to  these  abominable  presumptions  ;  for  an 
unreverent  title  would  be  unreverently  answered."  And 
there  they  left,  and  proceeded  no  further,  at  that  time. 

Thus  this  court  passed,  from  session  to  session,  and 
day  to  day,  insomuch  that,  a  certain  day,  the  King  sent 
for  my  lord,  at  the  breaking  up  of  the  court,  to  come  to 
him  into  Bridewell.  And  to  accomplish  his  command- 
ment, he  went  unto  him,  and  being  there,  with  him,  in 
communication,  in  his  grace's  privy  chamber,  from  eleven 
until  twelve  of  the  clock,  and  past,  at  noon,  rny  lord  came 
out,  and  departed  from  the  King,  and  took  his  barge  at 
the  Black  Friars,  and  so  went  to  his  house,  at  Westmin- 
ster. The  Bishop  of  Carlisle,  being  with  him,  in  his 
barge,  said  unto  him,  (wiping  the  sweat  from  his  face,) 
"  Sir,"  quoth  he,  "  it  is  a  very  hot  day."  "  Yea,"  quoth 
my  Lord  Cardinal,  "if  ye  had  been  as  well  chafed  as  I 
have  been,  within  this  hour,  ye  would  say,  it  were  very 
hot."  And,  as  soon  as  he  came  home  to  his  house,  at 
Westminster,  he  went,  incontinent,  to  his  naked  bed  ; 
where  he  had  not  lain,  fully  the  space  of  two  hours,  but 
that  my  Lord  of  Wiltshire  came  to  speak  \vith  him,  of 
a  message  from  the  King.  My  lord,  having  understand- 
ing of  his  coming,  caused  him  to  be  brought  unto  his  bed- 
side ;  and  he,  being  there,  showed  him  the  King's  pleas- 
ure was,  that  he  should,  incontinent,  (accompanied  with 
the  other  cardinal,)  repair  unto  the  Queen,  at  Bridewell, 
into  her  chamber,  to  persuade  her,  by  their  wisdoms,  ad- 
vising her  to  surrender  the  whole  matter  unto  the  King's 
hands,  by  her  own  will  and  consent  ;  which  should  be 
much  better  to  her  honor,  than  to  stand  to  the  trial  of 
law,  and  to  be  condemned,  which  would  seem  much  to 
her  slander  and  defamation.  To  fulfil  the  King's  pleas- 


HENRY  VIII.   OP  ENGLAND,  AND  HJS  QUEEN.     283 

lire,  my  lord  [said]  he  was  ready,  and  would  prepare  him 
to  go  thither,  out  of  hand,  saying,  further,  to  my  Lord 
of  Wiltshire,  "  Ye,  and  other  my  lords  of  the  council, 
which  be  near  unto  the  King,  are  not  a  little  to  blame, 
and  misadvised,  to  put  any  such  fantasies  into  his  head, 
whereby  ye  are  the  causes  of  great  trouble  to  all  the  realm; 
and  at  length  get  you  but  small  thanks,  either  of  God,  or 
of  the  world,"  with  many  other  vehement  words  and  sen- 
tences, that  were  like  to  ensue  of  this  matter,  which  words 
caused  my  Lord  of  Wiltshire  to  water  his  eyes,  kneeling, 
all  this  while,  by  my  lord's  bedside,  and,  in  conclusion, 
departed.  And  then,  my  lord  rose  up,  and  made  him 
ready,  taking  his  barge,  and  went  straight  to  Bath  Place, 
to  the  other  cardinal,  and  so  went  together,  unto  Bride- 
well, directly  to  the  Queen's  lodging  :  and  they,  being  in 
her  chamber  of  presence,  showed  to  the  gentleman  usher, 
that  they  came  to  speak  with  the  Queen's  grace.  The 
gentleman  usher  advertised  the  Queen  thereof,  inconti- 
nent. With  that,  she  came  out  of  her  privy  chamber, 
with  a  skein  of  white  thread  about  her  neck,  into  the 
chamber  of  presence,  where  the  cardinals  were  giving  of 
attendance  upon  her  coming.  At  whose  coming,  quoth 
she,  "  Alack,  my  lords,  I  am  very  sorry  to  cause  you  to 
attend  upon  me  ;  what  is  your  pleasure  with  me  ?"  "  If 
it  please  you,"  quoth  my  lord  cardinal,  "  to  go  into  your 
privy  chamber,  we  will  show  you  the  cause  of  our  com- 
ing." "  My  lord,"  quoth  she,  "  if  you  have  any  thing 
to  say,  speak  it,  openly,  before  all  these  folks  ;  for  I  fear 
nothing  that  ye  can  say  or  allege  against  me,  but  that  I 
would  all  the  world  should  both  hear  and  see  it  ;  there- 
fore, I  pray  you,  speak  your  minds,  openly."  Then  be- 
gan my  lord  to  speak  to  her,  in  Latin.  "Nay,  good 
my  lord,"  quoth  she,  "  speak  to  me  in  English,  I  beseech 
you  ;  although  I  understand  Latin."  u  Forsooth,  then," 
quoth  my  lord,  "  Madam,  if  it  please  your  grace,  we 
come  both  to  know  your  mind,  how  ye  be  disposed  to  do 
in  this  matter  between  the  King  and  you,  and  also  to  de- 
clare secretly  our  opinions,  and  our  counsel  unto  you, 
which  we  have  intended  of  very  zeal  and  obedience,  that 
we  bear  to  your  grace."  "  My  lords,  I  thank  you,  then," 


284  GREAT  EVENTS. 

quoth  she,  "  of  your  good  wills  ;  but  to  make  answer  to 
your  request,  I  cannot,  so  suddenly  ;  for  I  was  set  among 
my  maidens,  at  work,  thinking  full  little  of  any  such  mat- 
ter, wherein  there  needeth  a  longer  deliberation,  and  a 
better  head  than  mine,  to  make  answer  to  so  noble,  wise 
men  as  ye  be  ;  I  had  need  of  good  counsel  in  this  case, 
which  toucheth  me  so  near  ;  and  for  any  counsel  or 
friendship  that  I  find  in  England,  [they]  are  nothing  to 
my  purpose  or  profit.  Think  you,  I  pray  you,  my  lords, 
will  any  Englishmen  counsel  or  be^  friendly  unto  me, 
against  the  King's  pleasure,  they  being  his  subjects  ? 
Nay,  forsooth,  my  lords  !  and  for  my  counsel,  in  whom 
I  do  intend  to  put  my  trust,  be  not  here  ;  they  be  in 
Spain,  in  my  native  country.  Alas  !  my  lords  !  I  am  a 
poor  woman,  lacking  both  wit  and  understanding,  suffi- 
ciently to  answer  such  approved  wise  men,  as  ye  be,  both, 
in  so  weighty  a  matter.  I  pray  you,  to  extend  your  good 
and  indifferent  minds  in  your  authority  unto  me,  for  I  am 
a  simple  woman,  destitute  and  barren  of  friendship  and 
counsel,  here,  in  a  foreign  region  ;  and  as  for  your  coun- 
sel, I  will  not  refuse,  but  be  glad,  to  hear." 

And  with  that,  she  took  my  lord  by  the  hand,  and  led 
him  into  her  privy  chamber,  with  the  other  cardinal ; 
where  they  were  in  long  communication.  We,  in  the  oth- 
er chamber,  might  sometime  hear  the  Queen  speak,  very 
loud,  but  what  it  was,  we  could  not  understand.  The 
communication  ended,  the  cardinals  departed,  and  went 
directly  to  the  King,  making  to  him  relation  of  their  talk 
with  the  Queen  ;  and,  after,  resorted  to  their  own  houses, 
to  supper. 

Thus  went  this  strange  case  forward,  from  court-day 
to  court-day,  until  it  came  to  the  judgement  ;  so  that 
every  man  expected  the  judgement  to  be  given  upon  the 
next  court-day.  At  which  day,  the  King  came  thither, 
and  sat  within  a  gallery,  against  the  door  of  the  same,  that 
looked  unto  the  judges  where  they  sat,  whom  he  might  both 
see  and  hear  speak,  to  ln-ar  what  judgement  they  would 
give  in  his  suit  ;  at  which  time,  all  their  proceedings  were 
first  openly  read,  in  Latin.  And  that  done,  the  King's 
learned  counsel,  at  the  bar,  called  fast  for  judgement 


HENRY  VIII.    OF  ENGLAND,  AND  HIS   QUEEN.    285 

With  that,  quoth  Cardinal  Campeggio,*  "  I  will  give  no 
judgement  herein,  until  I  have  made  relation  unto  the 
Pope,  of  all  our  proceedings,  whose  counsel  and  com 
mandment  in  this  high  case  I  will  observe.  The  case  is 
too  high  and  notable,  known  throughout  the  world,  for  us 
to  give  any  hasty  judgement,  considering  the  highness  of 
the  persons  and  the  doubtful  allegations  :  and  also,  whose 
commissioners  we  be,  under  whose  authority  we  sit  here. 
It  were,  therefore,  reason,  that  we  should  make  our  chief 
head  [of]  counsel  in  the  same,  before  we  proceed  to 
judgement  definitive.  I  come  not  so  far,  to  please  any 
man,  for  fear,  need,  or  favor,  be  he  king,  or  any  other 
potentate.  I  have  no  such  respect  to  the  persons,  that 
I  will  offend  my  conscience.  I  will  not,  for  favor  or  dis- 
pleasure of  any  high  estate  or  mighty  prince,  do  that  thing 
that  should  be  against  the  law  of  God.  I  am  an  old  man, 
both  sick  and  impotent,  looking,  daily,  for  death.  What 
should  it  then  avail  me  to  put  my  soul  in  the  danger  of 
God's  displeasure,  to  my  utter  condemnation,  for  the  fa- 
vor of  any  prince  or  high  estate  in  this  world  ?  My  com- 
ing and  being  here  is  only  to  see  justice  ministered,  accord- 
ing to  my  conscience,  as  I  thought  thereby  the  matter  either 
good  or  bad.  And,  forasmuch  as  I  do  understand,  and 
having  perceivance  by  the  allegations  and  negations  in 
this  matter,  laid  for  both  the  parties,  that  the  truth,  in 
this  case,  is  very  doubtful  to  be  known,  and  also,  that  the 
party  defendant  will  make  no  answer  thereunto,  [but] 
doth  rather  appeal  from  us,  supposing  that  we  be  not  in- 
different, considering  the  King's  high  dignity  and  authori- 
ty, within  this  his  own  realm,  which  he  hath  over  his 
own  subjects ;  and  we  being  his  subjects,  and  having  our 
livings  and  dignities  in  the  same,  she  thinketh  that  we 
cannot  minister  true  and  indifferent  justice,  for  fear  of  his 
displeasure.  Therefore,  to  avoid  all  these  ambiguities 
and  obscure  doubts,  I  intend  not  to  condemn  my  soul, 

*  This  determination  of  Campeggio  was  in  consequence  of  secret 
instructions  from  the  Pope,  (unknown  to  Wolsey,)  at  the  instance  of 
the  Emperor,  [Charles  V.,]  who  had  prevailed  upon  the  Pontiff  to 
adjourn  the  court,  and  remove  the  cause  to  Rome. — Note  of  the  Eng- 
lish Editor.  ' 


286  GREAT  EVENTS. 

for  no  prince  or  potentate  alive.  I  will,  therefore,  God 
willing,  wade  no  further,  in  this  matter,  unless  I  have  the 
just  opinion  and  judgement,  with  the  assent,  of  the  Pope, 
and  such  other  of  his  counsel  as  hath  more  experience 
and  learning  in  such  doubtful  laws,  than  I  have.  Where- 
fore, I  will  adjourn  this  court,  for  this  time,  according  to 
the  order  of  the  court  in  Rome,  whence  this  court  and 
jurisdiction  is  derived.  And  if  we  should  go  further,  than 
our  commission  doth  warrant  us,  it  were  folly  and  vain, 
and  much  to  our  slander  and  blame  ;  and  [we]  might  be 
accounted,  for  the  same,  breakers  of  the  order  of  the  high- 
er court,  whence  we  have  (as  I  said)  our  original  author- 
ities." With  that,  the  court  was  dissolved,  and  no  more 
pleas  holden. 


SIEGES  OF  LEYDEN  AND  OSTEND.  287 


THE  SIEGES  OF  LEYDEN  AND  OSTEND,  IN 
THE  WAR  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS,  FOR  IN- 
DEPENDENCE. 

BY  BENTIVOGLIO. 

GUY  BENTIVOGLIO,  descended  from  an  ancient  and  dis- 
tinguished noble  family,  in  Italy,  was  born  at  Ferrara,  in 
the  year  1579.  He  died  in  1644,  while  present,  as  cardi- 
nal, in  the  conclave  which  had  assembled  after  the  death 
of  Pope  Urban  the  Eighth.  Bentivoglio  occupied  many 
high  stations  in  the  Papal  government.  In  1607,  he  was 
sent  by  Pope  Paul  the  Fifth  to  Flanders,  as  Papal  nuncio. 
Here,  he  remained  nine  years  ;  after  which,  he  went,  in 
the  same  capacity,  to  France.  He  left  many  works,  among 
which,  are  '  Cardinal  Bentivoglio 's  Relations  of  Events 
during  his  Embassies  to  Flanders  and  France.'  His  ac- 
counts of  the  war  in  the  Netherlands  were  translated  and 
published  under  the  title  of  '  History  of  the  Wars  in  Flan- 
ders, Englished  by  Henry,  Earl  of  Monmouth,  1698." 
From  this  translation  the  following  extracts  are  taken,  with 
some  modifications,  adapting  it  to  the  class  of  readers  for 
whom  this  Volume  is  intended.  The  war  for  independence, 
waged  by  the  Netherlands  against  the  crown  of  Spain,  ad- 
mits of  being  considered  in  various  points  of  view.  We 
may  consider  it  with  reference  to  the  almost  unparallelled 
heroism  of  the  people,  during  a  fearfully  cruel  and  san 
guinarywar,  protracted  through  a  long  series  of  years  ;  01 
to  the  remarkable  character  of  their  great  general,  states- 
man, citizen,  and  martyr,  William  of  Orange,  surnamed 
the  Silent.  We  may  consider  the  war  with  relation  to  its 
cause  and  object,  religion  and  liberty  ;  or  to  its  effects, 
and  those  of  its  final  issue,  upon  the  politics  of  Britain,  and, 
more  or  less  directly,  upon  those  of  all  European  nations 
and  their  descendants  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  We  may 
view  it  with  reference  to  the  great  political  principles  which 
were,  for  the  first  time,  boldly  proclaimed,  when  that  nation 
struggled  into  an  independent  existence  ;  or  to  the  great 
effect  which  its  independence  had  upon  the  whole  history 
of  commerce,  and  upon  many  principles  radically  affecting 
the  great  exchange  of  produce  among  the  various  nations 


288  GREAT   EVENTS. 

of  the  world.  In  whatever  light,  however,  we  regard  it, 
this  event  must  certainly  be  called  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent in  the  history  of  man. 

Very  many  instances  of  heroic  fortitude,  not  only  in  men, 
but  even  in  women,  were  exhibited  in  the  course  of  that 
long  war.  But  nowhere,  probably,  were  more  striking 
examples  of  this  virtue  shown,  than  in  the  almost  superhu- 
man endurance  of  the  citizens,  when  besieged  by  the  Span- 
iards. Even  indifferent  soldiers  will  do  their  duty,  suffi- 
ciently well,  so  long  as  the  army  is  victorious  ;  but  retreats 
and  sieges  are  the  touchstones  of  sound  warriors.  If  this 
is  an  acknowledged  truth,  with  regard  to  regular,  tried, 
and  well-disciplined  troops,  it  is  still  more  so,  in  the  case 
of  citizens  who  have  suddenly  become  soldiers.  Gallant 
bands  of  citizens,  who  would  have  died,  nobly,  in  open  bat- 
tle, will,  nevertheless,  often  falter,  when  hunger  and  disease 
beset  them  on  all  sides,  in  a  besieged  fortress,  when  near 
and  dear  relations  drop  off,  one  by  one,  around  them,  and 
no  hope  is  visible,  even  in  the  furthest  horizon.  Yet,  in 
all  these  trials,  the  Netherlanders  remained  firm. 

From  the  series  of  sieges,  which  took  place  during  this 
war,  those  of  Leyden  and  Ostend  have  been  selected. 
Numerous  incidents  might  have  been  added  to  the  narra- 
tive of  Bentivoglio,  who,  the  reader  will  perceive,  had  no 
interest  in  representing  the  courage  of  the  Protestants  in 
a  favorable  light.  Accounts  of  many  such  incidents  are  to 
be  found  in  Campen's  History  of  the  Netherlands  ;  but 
the  plan  of  the  present  work  did  not  admit  of  their  insertion. 

The  intervening  passages,  and  the  notes,  are  taken  from 
the  work,  already  quoted  :  '  Historical  Parallels,'  London, 
1831. 

SIEGE  OP  LEYDEN.* 

"  Now  followed  the  Siege  of  Leyden,  which  was  par- 
ticularly memorable  for  the  condition  of  the  succor,  which 
so  altered  the  order  of  affairs,  that  the  besiegers  became 
besieged  ;  and,  whatever  unhappy  success  the  assailed  ex- 
pected, the  assailant  made  trial  of  the  very  same.  Ley- 
den is  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  Holland  ;  it  is  seated 
low,  in  the  midst,  it  may  be  said,  of  a  labyrinth  of  chan- 
nels, which  cut  through  the  territories  thereof,  on  all  sides, 
and  are  filled,  part  with  running,  and  part  with  standing, 
*  The  siege  of  Leyden  took  place  in  the  year,  1574. 


SIEGE  OP  LEYDEN.  289 

waters  ;  the  Rhine,  or  rather,  one  of  its  branches,  runs 
through  it ;  a  branch,  which,  though  now  the  weakest,  hath 
formerly  been  the  most  frequented  ;  and  still  retains  its 
ancient  name,  whereas  the  rest,  as  they  draw  near  the 
sea,  lose  their  names  in  those  of  other  rivers.  So  many 
other  channels  are  derived  from  this  branch,  within  the 
town  itself,  in  several  parts,  that  the  space,  which  is  there 
broken  oft' by  the  islands,  is,  in  some  degree,  larger  than 
that  which  is  united  to  the  continent.  But,  if  it  be  divid- 
ed by  so  many  channels,  it  is  rejoined  by  many  more 
bridges,  of  which  there  are  about  a  hundred  and  fifty, 
serving  either  for  use  or  ornament ;  the  most  of  them 
being  of  stone.  The  town  is  well  peopled  ;  the  streets 
are  large,  and  the  buildings  well  polished.  It  is  well 
flanked,  round  about ;  the  surrounding  ditch  is  every 
where  deep  ;  and,  in  fine,  the  town  is,  in  all  circumstances, 
in  such  condition,  that  the  king's  men  had  good  reason  to 
use  all  endeavors  to  gain,  and  the  rebels  to  keep,  posses- 
sion of  it. 

"  The  royalists  endeavored,  with  diligence,  to  make 
themselves  masters  of  all  avenues,  whereby  succor  might 
be  given  to  the  town.  The  parts  thereabouts  (as  hath 
been  said)  are  full  of  channels  and  rivers  ;  wherefore  it 
was  thought  necessary  to  block  up,  with  sundry  forts,  all 
passages,  by  which  the  city  might  be  approached,  either 
by  land  or  water  ;  so  that,  ere  long,  nearly  sixty  forts  had 
been  built  round  about  it,  whereby  almost  all  possibility  of 
relieving  it  was  taken  away.  The  Leydenists,  in  the  mean- 
while, were  not  wanting,  on  their  parts,  in  preparing  for 
defence.  And,  judging  that  the  royalists  intended  rath- 
er to  take  the  town  by  famine,  than  by  the  sword,  they 
thought  it  convenient  not  to  receive  many  foreign  soldiers 
into  the  city,  that  they  might  the  longer  preserve  their 
provisions  ;  and  they  also  hoped,  they  had  men  enough  of 
their  own  to  maintain  and  defend  it.* 

"  JohnDouza,  a  famous  Latin  poet  in  those  days,  very 
nobly  born,  and  of  other  high  deserts,  had  the  chief  gov- 

*  The  citizens  replied  to  a  summons  to  surrender,  that  they  would 
not  lack  food,  while  their  left  arms  remained,  but  feed  on  them,  and 
fight  for  liberty  with  their  right. — Strata,  ie  Bello  Bdgico,  lib.  viii. 
25  G.    E. 


290  GREAT  EVENTS. 

ernment  of  the  affairs  of  the  city.  He  failed  not  in  act 
ing  his  part  well ;  he  still  encouraged  the  Leydenists,  and 
fed  them  with  hopes,  that  the  other  cities  would  speedily 
join  with  and  relieve  them.  In  confirmation  of  this,  letters 
and  messages  sometimes  came,  from  without,  and  some 
news  was  cunningly  raised,  within  the  town  itself;  though 
it  was  very  true,  that  Orange  and  the  rest  of  the  rebels  in 
that  province  labored  for  nothing  more,  than  how  to  keep 
a  place  of  such  consequence  still  at  their  devotion.  It 
was  now  the  month  of  August ;  and  the  Leydenists  al- 
ready began  to  suffer,  from  want  of  provisions.  The 
states  of  the  country,  therefore,  met,  to  treat  of  so  weighty 
a  business,  and  to  find  out  some  way,  whereby  the  city 
might  be  relieved  ;  and  this  affair  began  to  be  of  great 
importance.  The  deputies  differed  in  their  opinions  ; 
some  thought,  that  the  town  might  be  most  easily  succor- 
ed by  making  a  gallant  assault  by  land  ;  others  held,  that 
it  might  better  be  relieved  by  some  river  or  channel  ;  but 
the  greatest  part  concluded,  that  there  was  little  hope  of 
doing  it  either  one  way  or  the  other,  the  king's  men  hav- 
ing so  strongly  fortified  themselves,  every  where.  Lewis 
Boisot,  admiral  of  Holland,  was  at  this  meeting.  He 
was  a  man  very  expert  in  maritime  affairs  ;  of  a  manlike 
spirit,  and  good  at  execution  ;  and  one  who  was  very  well 
esteemed  over  all  the  province.  He,  whilst  they  were 
hottest  in  the  variety  of  their  opinions,  stepped  forth,  to 
propound  his,  and  began  to  speak  thus  : 

"  '  I  wish  that  our  own  misfortunes  did  not  too  deplor- 
ably teach  us  how  perverse  the  fury  of  the  sea  sometimes 
proves  to  our  countries.  Who  sees  not,  how  \vr  :nv 
daily  forced  to  oppose  our  industry  to  the  threats  there- 
of ?  Nor  have  our  mountainous  banks  been  sufficient  so 
to  curb  the  tempest  of  her  waves,  but  that,  sometimes,  she 
hath  swallowed  up  whole  islands,  on  some  sides,  and  caused 
miserable  and  unheard-of  ruin,  in  other  parts.  We  are 
now  to  seek  for  remedy,  in  this  our  present  necessity, 
from  the  evils  which  do  so  often  afflict  us.  Let  Nature 
work  the  same  effect,  to-day,  for  our  good,  which  she 
hath,  upon  so  many  other  occasions,  for  our  hurt.  And, 
with  those  weapons,  wherewith  she  makes  war  against  us, 


SIEGE  OF  LEYDEN.  291 

let  us,  by  her  example,  wake  war  upon  our  enemies. 
Every  one  knows,  that,  at  the  two  equinoxes  of  the  year, 
the  ocean  swells  extraordinarily  high,  upon  our  coasts  ,• 
and,  by  the  season  of  the  year,  we  are  shortly  to  expect 
the  effects  thereof.  My  counsel  shall,  therefore,  be,  that 
we  may,  immediately,  at  the  high  tides,  begin  to  let  the 
waters  loose  into  the  neighboring  ground  of  Leyden  : 
greater  tides  will  hereafter  follow.  And  thus,  turning 
the  siege  upon  the  besiegers,  we  may  hope  to  destroy 
our  enemies,  within  their  own  works,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  to  free  the  city  from  all  danger.  It  may  be  thought 
impossible  to  relieve  it  by  land,  or  by  the  ordinary  way 
of  channels  or  rivers  ;  whereas,  by  the  way  which  I  have 
prescribed,  we  may  believe  that  our  enterprise  will  be 
smiled  on,  by  success.  It  will  be  in  our  power,  to  let  in 
the  inundation,  where  we  please.  We  shall  see  the  ene- 
my strangely  astonished  and  confused,  between  the  shame 
of  abandoning  the  siege  and  the  horror  of  continuing  it. 
But,  being  forced,  at  last,  to  fly,  we  shall  see  our  own 
weapons  and  those  of  Nature  conspire  together,  in  slaugh- 
tering them  on  all  sides  ;  and  shall  see  that  punishment 
justly  transferred  to  them,  which  they,  with  open  violence, 
prepared  for  the  innocent.  The  portion  of  country,  which 
shall  be  drowned,  will,  doubtless,  be  somewhat  damaged 
thereby  ;  but  who  would  not  bear  with  an  inconvenience, 
from  which  their  country  shall  receive  so  great  a  benefit  ? 
On  the  contrary,  whose  hair  will  not  stand  on  end,  to 
think,  that,  after  the  loss  of  Haerlern  and  of  Leyden,  the 
whole  province  will  shortly  remain  at  the  cruel  will  of  the 
Spaniards  ?  We  must  sometimes  do  apparent  injury,  in 
order  to  effect  good.  How  oft  do  we  cut  off  some  one 
member,  for  the  welfare  and  safeguard  of  the  rest  of  the 
body  ?  Yet  this  evil  will  not  prove  finally  so  great,  but 
that  it  will,  in  time,  be  paid  with  great  usury.  Some 
worldly  actions  prove  so  memorable,  that  they  strike  envy 
dumb,  and  add  new  tongues  to  fame.  This  of  ours  will 
certainly  be  such,  and  will  be,  every  where,  highly  cele- 
brated. I,  who  so  boldly  give  the  advice,  do,  as  confi- 
dently, pronounce  the  augury  ;  and  hope  that  the  event 
will  crown  both  of  them  with  fortunate  success.' 


292  GREAT   EVENTS. 

u  At  the  hearing  of  so  strange  a  proposition,  the  depu- 
ties were  much  confused,  whether  they  should  accept  or 
reject  it.  But  it  is  ofttimes  seen,  that,  need  passing  into 
necessity,  necessity  passeth  into  desperation.  And  thus 
it  proved,  in  what  we  shall  now  relate.  For  all  of  them, 
joining,  at  last,  in  opinion,  that  Leyden  was  not  to  be 
freed  by  any  other  way  than  by  what  Boisot  had  pro- 
pounded, it  was  resolved,  that,  at  all  adventures,  they 
would  follow  his  advice.  The  chief  banks  or  ditches  of  the 
Meuse  and  Isell,  between  Rotterdam  and  Tergowe,  were 
presently  cut  through,  in  divers  places ;  and,  at  the  high 
tide,  the  waters  began  to  break  in,  every  where,  and  over- 
flow all  the  grounds,  which  lie  between  Tergowe,-  Rotter- 
dam, Delf,  and  Leyden.  At  the  sight  of  this  unlooked-for 
inundation,  the  Spaniards  were,  at  first,  much  astonished  ; 
but  they  were  soon  aware  of  their  enemies'  design.  The 
king's  forts  were  very  many,  as  we  have  said,  and  divers 
of  them  were  situated  in  the  lowest  places.  These  the  in- 
undation quickly  reached,  and,  therefore,  they  were  speed- 
ily forsaken  ;  and  those  who  kept  them  went  to  join  with 
those  that  kept  the  chief  forts,  which  were  so  placed  that 
they  might  be  the  more  easily  maintained.  In  the  mean- 
while, when  once  the  enemy  had  adopted  the  aforesaid 
resolution,  they  applied  themselves  apace,  to  get  together 
many  vessels,  which  should  be  fit  to  relieve  Leyden. 
They  were  very  careful  to  build  them  with  shallow  bot- 
toms, to  the  end  that  they  might  pass  over  those  grounds 
where  the  waters  were  shallowest.  The  greatest  part  of 
them  were  built  in  Rotterdam,  by  reason  of  the  nearne^ 
and  opportunity  of  its  situation.  The  whole  counti 
in  great  expectation  of  the  result,  and,  therefore,  people 
flocked  from  all  parts,  to  help  to  build  boats  ;  many  of 
which  were  to  be  in  the  form  of  galleys  with  oars,  to  tho 
end  that  they  might  the  easier  get  by  the  passes,  and  as- 
sault the  forts,  which  were  yet  in  the  royalists'  possession. 
These  boats  were  therefore  furnished  with  ninny  pieces 
of  artillery,  and  such  people  as  were  judged  fit  to  fight. 
Whilst  they  were  making  this  preparation,  the  admiral  of 
Holland  endeavored,  with  some  ships  prepared  for  that 
purpose,  to  force  certain  passes,  and  to  bring  some  sue 


SIEGE   OF  LEYDEN.  293 

cor  into  Leyden  ;  for  the  besieged  suffered,  very  much, 
for  want  of  victuals,  and  did  very  earnestly  solicit  suc- 
cor. But  his  design  did  not,  at  that  time,  take  effect ; 
for  the  waters  were  not  yet  so  far  increased,  that  his  ves- 
sels could  come  near  Leyden.  All  Holland  joined,  there- 
fore, in  their  prayers,  that  the  sea  might  suddenly  swell 
higher  ;  and  that  the  province,  by  the  raising  of  the  siege 
of  Leyden,  might  receive  so  desired  a  misfortune. 

"  On  the  other  side,  the  king's  men  were  not  backward 
in  securing  their  forts,  and  repairing  them  with  earth,  hay, 
and  whatsoever  else  they  could  procure,  suitable  for  the 
purpose  ;  and,  hoping  that  the  waters  would  swell  no 
higher,  they  persuaded  themselves  that  they  should,  within 
a  few  days,  finish  their  business.  They  very  well  knew 
the  townsmen's  necessities  ;  and  that,  all  their  victuals  be- 
ing already  spent,  the  affairs  within  were  drawing  to  great 
extremity.  While  both  sides  were  in  these  hopes  and 
fears,  the  time  came,  when  Nature,  by  way  of  her  hidden 
causes,  was  likewise  to  work  her  effects.  About  the  end 
of  September,  the  sea  began  to  swell,  exceedingly,  ac- 
cording as  it  usually  does  at  that  season  of  the  year  ;  and 
pouring  in,  at  the  high  tides,  no  longer  waves,  but  even 
mountains  of  waters,  into  the  most  inward  channels  and 
rivers,  made  so  great  an  inundation,  that  all  the  country 
about  Leyden  seemed  to  be  turned  into  a  sea.*  It  can- 
not be  said  how  much  the  rebels  were  hereby  encouraged, 
and  the  king's  men  discouraged.  The  former  came  pres- 
ently forth  with  their  fleet,  which  consisted  of -about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  bottoms,  a  great  part  whereof  were  made 
like  galleys  ;  and  to  these,  were  added  many  other  boats, 
which  served  only  to  carry  provisions.  The  whole  fleet 
was  thus  assembled  together,  about  the  beginning  of  Oc- 
tober, and  put  to  water  in  good  order,  to  execute  their 
designed  relief.  The  galleys  went  on  the  outsides  ;  the 
other  great  vessels,  which,  if  need  should  be,  were  to  play 
upon  the  forts,  in  the  midst ;  and  those  which  bore  the 
victuals,  in  the  rear.  But  there  was  no  occasion  of  any 

*  Strada  says,  with  an  expression  of  incredulity,  however,  that,  by 
means  of  this  inundation,  vessels  came,  ov«r-'atd,  to  1  eyd/m,  f-om  a 
distance  of  forty  miles. 

25* 


294  GREAT  EVENTS. 

great  contention  ;  for  the  king's  men,  having  valiantly  de- 
Tended  themselves,  in  sundry  places,  considering  that  they 
were  not  now  to  fight  with  men,  but  with  the  elements, 
thought  rather  how  to  withdraw  themselves  into  places 
of  safety,  than  rashly  to  oppose  the  enemy.  Yet  they 
could  not  abandon  their  fortifications,  neither  so  soon  nor 
in  so  good  order,  but  that  many  of  them  remained  a  prey, 
either  to  the  sword  or  to  the  water.  And,  truly,  it  was 
a  miserable  spectacle,  to  behold,  from  all  parts,  one  slain, 
another  drowned  ;  and  many  endeavor  to  save  themselves 
in  the  highest  places,  where,  when  they  were  freed  from 
the  waters,  they  were  inexorably  slain  by  the  enemy.* 
It  is  said,  that  above  fifteen  hundred  of  the  king's  men 
perished  thus,  most  of  them  Spaniards,  who  were  chiefly 
employed  in  ordering  the  siege,  and  who,  desirous  to 
bear  away  the  greatest  glory,  fell  into  the  greatest  misfor- 
tune. Thus  was  Leyden,  at  last,  relieved,  after  five 
months'  siege,  to  the  exceeding  great  joy  of  the  rebels,  and 
all  that  favored  them.  But,  nevertheless,  the  memory 
of  this  siege  remained  a  long  time  very  sorrowful  in  the 
city  ;  for  about  ten  thousand  died,  within  the  town,  of 
hunger  and  other  sufferings  ;  and  all  the  most  unclean  and 
vilest  nourishment  was  already  consumed,  when  the  relief 
was  brought  in  ;  and  the  besieged,  resolving  rather  to  die 
than  to  yield,  expected  nothing  but  that  the  city  should 
give  up  her  last  breath,  and,  remaining  a  miserable  car- 
cass, should  be  buried  within  her  own  walls  and  houses." 
So  far  Bentivoglio. 

In  this  siege,  the  Spanish  general  committed  a  fatal 
error,  in  not  trying  an  assault,  which  might  probably  have 
succeeded,  since  there  were  no  regular  troops  within  the 
town  ;  a  body  of  English  auxiliaries,  who  were  placed  in 

t  The  Dutch  annoyed  the  Spaniards  much,  with  sharp  hooks  fast. D,  ,1 
to  poles  or  ropes,  by  whir.h  they  drew  up  the  Spaniards  into  their  ship- 
<  >ne  Peter  Borgia  was  caught  up  with  four  hooks,  into  a  vessel 
holding  six  or  seven  men,  and  supposed  to  be  mortally  hurt  ;  Imt  pres- 
ently, while  they  were  deeply  engaged  in  fishing  for  more  men,  he 
caught  up  a  battle-axe,  and  set  on  them,  from  behind,  with  such  fury, 
that  he  killed  three,  and  frightened  the  rest  overboard,  and  thus  carried 
off,  to  the  Spanish  camp,  a  vessel  laden  with  provisions  — 8  trad  a, 
Bell.  Belg.  lib.  viii. 


SIEGE   OF  LEYDEN.  295 

advance,  near  Gouda,  and  intended  by  the  Prince  of 
Orange  to  form  the  garrison  of  Ley  den,  when  dislodged, 
having  behaved  so  ill  in  the  first  skirmish,  that  the  citizens 
refused  them  entrance  within  the  walls.  And  this  step, 
which  might  have  been  their  ruin,  became  the  cause  of 
their  safety,  for  the  additional  number  of  consumers  must 
have  brought  their  provisions  to  an  earlier  end,  besides 
that  no  troops,  comparatively  uninterested  in  the  event, 
would  have  endured  the  extremity  of  distress  to  which  the 
men  of  Leyden  were  reduced.  Of  the  amount  of  their 
suffering,  which  the  Italian  historian,  just  quoted,  barely 
notices,  the  reader  will  be  enabled  to  form  a  fuller  idea, 
by  a  few  particulars,  derived  from  other  authorities. 

"With  extreme  impatience,  they  now  expected  the 
approach  of  those  tides,  which  are  commonly  the  object 
of  their  dread  and  terror.  The  situation  of  the  besieged 
had  become  most  desperate  and  deplorable.  During 
seven  weeks,  there  had  not  been  a  morsel  of  bread  within 
the  city  ;  and  the  only  food  had  been  the  roots  of  herbs 
and  weeds,  and  the  flesh  of  dogs  and  horses.  Even  all 
these  were  at  length  consumed,  and  the  people  reduced 
to  live  on  soup,  made  of  the  hides  of  animals  which  had 
been  killed.  A  pestilence  succeeded  to  the  famine,  and 
carried  off,  in  a  few  weeks,  some  thousands  of  the  in- 
habitants. Those  who  survived,  overwhelmed  with  an- 
guish, at  the  dismal  scenes  which  they  daily  beheld,  were 
scarcely  able  to  perform  the  mournful  office  of  burying 
the  dead.  In  this  dreadful  situation,  they  saw,  from  their 
walls,  the  flags  and  sails  of  the  vessels  destined  for  their 
relief,  but  had  the  mortification  to  perceive,  that  it  was 
utterly  impossible  for  them  to  approach.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising, that  some  of  the  people,  finding  their  misery 
greater  than  they  were  able  to  endure,  should  have  enter- 
tained the  thoughts  of  surrendering  the  town  to  the  enemy. 
Some  conspiracies  were  again  formed  for  this  purpose, 
but  they  were  discovered  and  defeated  by  the  vigilance 
of  Douza,  supported  by  a  great  majority  of  the  people, 
to  whom  neither  the  pestilence,  nor  famine,  nor  death  in 
its  most  hideous  forms,  appeared  so  dreadful,  as  the  ty- 
ranny of  the  Spaniards. 


296  GREAT  EVENTS. 

"  A  great  number  of  people  having  come,  one  day,  in 
a  tumultuous  manner,  to  a  magistrate,  whose  name  was 
Adrian,  exclaiming  that  he  ought  either  to  give  them  food, 
or  deliver  the  town  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  :  '  I  have 
solemnly  sworn,'  he  replied,  '  that  I  will  never  surrender 
myself,  or  my  fellow-citizens,  to  the  cruel  and  perfidious 
Spaniard  ;  and  I  will  sooner  die,  than  violate  my  oath. 
I  have  no  food,  else  I  would  give  it  you.  But,  if  my 
death  can  be  of  use  to  you,  take,  tear  me  in  pieces,  and 
devour  me.  I  shall  die  with  satisfaction,  if  I  know,  that 
by  my  death,  I  shall,  for  one  moment,  relieve  you  from 
your  direful  necessity.'  By  this  extraordinary  answer, 
the  people,  struck  with  astonishment,  were  silenced,  and 
their  fury  was,  for  some  time,  appeased."* 

SIEGE  OF  OSTEND. 

"  WE  will  now  come  to  the  siege  of  Ostend,  which, 
being  one  of  the  most  memorable  of  this  our  age,  doth 
certainly  require,  that,  as  much  brevity  and  diligence  as 
may  be  being  joined  together,  it  be  duly  considered  and 
represented  with  all  clearness.  It  was  above  three  years, 
before  it  was  brought  to  an  end  ;  and  it  was  almost  as 
uncertain,  at  the  last  day,  as  at  the  first,  to  which  side 
the  victory  did  incline.  The  besieged  never  wanted 
fresh  succors  by  sea,  nor  did  the  besiegers,  at  any  time, 
cease  advancing  by  land.  Infinite  were  the  batteries,  the 
assaults  infinite  ;  so  many  were  the  mines,  and  so  obsti- 
nate the  countermines,  that  it  may  be  almost  affirmed, 
that  as  much  work  was  done,  under,  as  above,  ground. 
New  names  were  to  be  found  for  new  engines.  There 
was  a  perpetual  dispute  between  the  sea  and  land  ;  the 
works  on  the  latter  could  not  produce  so  much,  as  the 
mines  made  by  the  former  did  destroy.  Great  store  of 
blood  ran,  every  where,  and  men  were  readier  to  lose  it 
than  to  preserve  it,  till  the  besieged  wanting  ground,  and 
rather  what  to  defend  than  defence,  they  were  at  last 
forced  to  abandon  that  little  spot  of  ground  which  was 
left  them,  and  to  yield. 

•  WaUon's  History  of  Philip  II. 


SIEGE   Of   OSTEND.  297 

"  Ostend  stands  upon  the  seashore,  in  the  midst  of  a 
marshy  ground,  and  of  divers  channels,  which  come  from 
the  continent ;  but  it  is  chiefly  environed,  on  almost  all 
sides,  by  two  of  the  greatest  of  these  channels,  by  which 
the  sea  enters  into  the  land,  and  rises  so  high,  when  it  is 
full  sea,  that  you  would  rather  think  the  town  were  buried, 
than  situated,  in  the  sea.  In  former  times,  it  was  an 
open  place,  and  served  rather  as  a  habitation  for  shep- 
herds than  for  soldiers.  But  the  importance  of  the  site 
being  afterwards  considered,  the  houses  were  enclosed 
with  a  platform,  instead  of  a  wall,  and,  from  time  to  time, 
the  line  was  so  flanked  round  about  it,  that  it  proved  to 
be  one  of  the  strongest  towns  of  all  the  province  of 
Flanders.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  which  are  called 
the  old  town  and  the  new.  The  former,  which  is  the 
lesser,  stands  towards  the  sea  ;  the  latter  and  greater  lies 
towards  the  land.  The  old  town  is  fenced  from  the  fury 
of  the  sea  by  great  piles  of  wood,  driven  into  the  ground, 
and  joined  together,  for  the  defence  of  that  part  ;  and 
there,  the  waves  sufficiently  supply  the  part  of  a  ditch. 
The  channels  may  be  said  to  do  the  like,  on  the  sides  ; 
and,  especially  at  full  sea,  the  channels  become  havens, 
being  then  capable  of  holding  any  kind  of  vessels,  and 
by  them,  at  all  times,  barks  of  the  middle  size  enter  into 
the  ditches,  and,  from  the  ditches,  in  divers  parts,  into 
the  town  itself;  and,  in  addition  to  the  chief  well-flanked 
line,  on  the  outside  of  the  ditch,  there  is,  towards  the 
land  side,  a  strada  coperta  raised,  which  is  so  well  fur- 
nished with  new  flanks,  and  with  a  new  ditch,  that  this 
outward  fortification  doth  hardly  give  way  to  any  of  the 
inward  ones.  The  town  is  but  of  a  small  compass,  and 
is  ennobled  rather  by  its  situation  and  fortifications,  than 
by  any  splendor  either  of  inhabitants  or  houses.  The 
United  Provinces  caused  it  to  be  very  carefully  kept  at 
this  time,  wherefore  it  was  largely  provided  with  men, 
artillery,  ammunition,  and  whatsoever  else  was  necessary 
for  the  defence  thereof.  In  this  condition  was  the  town, 
when  the  Archduke  resolved  to  sit  down  before  it." 

On  the  east  of  the  town,  there  was  a  detached  fort, 
called  St.  Alberto  ;  on  the  west,  another,  called  Bre- 


298  GREAT  EVENTS. 

dene  ;  both  which  had  been  abandoned  by  the  garrison. 
These  were  occupied  by  the  besieging  army,  which  pro- 
ceeded to  surround  Ostend,  on  the  land  side,  with  a  chain 
of  works.  This  was  not  done  without  sharp  fighting  ; 
for  the  governor,  Sir  Francis  Vere,  had  raised  redoubts 
in  front  of  his  fortifications,  and  hotly  contested  every 
inch  of  ground.  It  seemed,  also,  necessary  to  cut  off 
the  communication  with  the  sea  ;  and,  with  this  view,  a 
bank  was  run  out,  on  the  eastern  side,  from  St.  Alberto, 
to  prevent  barks  from  entering  by  the  channel  in  that 
quarter.  But  it  was  also  expedient  to  block  up  the 
channel,  on  the  side  of  Bredene,  and,  in  doing  this, 
greater  difficulties  were  to  be  overcome. 

The  siege  began  in  the  Summer  of  1601,  and  the 
Autumn  had  been  consumed  in  these  works,  when,  to- 
wards the  end  of  December,  a  terrible  storm  from  the 
sea  so  shattered  the  town,  that  the  inhabitants,  despairing 
of  being  able  to  resist  an  assault,  began  to  parley  ;  but 
their  spirits  were  recruited,  and  the  negotiations  broken 
off,  by  a  seasonable  re-enforcement,  both  of  men  and  all 
manner  of  provisions.  The  Archduke,  being  thus  dis- 
appointed in  his  hopes,  gave  orders  that  a  battery  should 
be  raised,  on  the  side  of  St.  Alberto,  which  played  so 
furiously  upon  the  sea-bulwark,  that  a  practicable  breach 
was  soon  made,  and  an  assault  ordered.  To  divert  the 
enemy,  directions  were  given  that  Count  Bucquoy,  who 
commanded  at  Bredene,  should  pass  the  channel  there, 
and  fall  with  his  men  on  the  wall,  where  it  was  beaten 
down,  and  that,  upon  the  land-side,  there  should  be  alarms 
given,  every  where.  "  When  they  came  to  the  assault, 
the  assailants  behaved  themselves  gallantly,  and  used  all 
means  to  get  upon  the  wall ;  and,  though  many  of  them 
fell  down,  dead  and  wounded,  and  the  horror  of  night, 
whirh  already  came  on,  made  their  dangers  the  more 
terrible,  yet  did  it  serve  rather  to  set  the  Catholics  on 
fire,  than  to  make  them  cool  in  their  fight.  Hut  ihcro 
appeared  no  less  resoluteness  of  resistance  in  those 
within  ;  for,  opposing  themselves,  valiantly,  on  all  sides, 
and  being  very  well  able  to  do  it,  having  so  many  men, 
and  such  store  of  all  necessary  provisions,  they  stoutlv 


SIEGE  OF  OSTEND.  299 

defended  themselves.  Upon  the  coming  on  of  night, 
they  had  set  up  many  lights,  in  divers  parts  of  the  town, 
whereby  they  the  better  maintained  the  places  assigned 
to  them,  and  with  more  security  hit  those  that  assailed 
them,  as  well  as  came  the  better  to  where  their  help  was 
required.  They  also  soon  discerned,  that  they  were  all 
false  alarms  that  were  given  without,  and  that  the  true 
assault  was  made  only  in  one  place.  To  this  was  added, 
that  Count  Bucquoy,  not  finding  the  water  of  the  afore- 
said channel  so  deep  as  he  believed,  could  by  no  means 
pass  over  to  them.  Yet  the  Catholics  did,  for  a  long 
time,  continue  their  assault  ;  but,  the  defendants'  advan- 
tages still  increasing,  the  assailants  were  at  last  forced  to 
give  over,  with  great  loss  ;  for  there  were  above  six 
hundred  slain  and  wounded.  Nor  did  those  within  let 
slip  the  occasion  of  injuring,  yet  more,  the  Catholics,  as 
they  retreated  ;  for,  plucking  up  some  of  their  sluices, 
by  which  they  both  received  the  seawater  into  their 
ditches  and  let  it  out  again,  they  turned  the  water  with 
such  violence  into  the  channel,  which  the  Catholics  had 
passed  over  before  they  came  to  the  assault,  and  which 
they  were  to  pass  over  again,  in  their  retreat,  that  many 
of  them  were  unfortunately  drowned." 

The  year  1602  set  in  with'  such  severe  cold,  that  the 
Archduke  was  advised  to  abandon  the  siege.  But  he 
would  not  be  persuaded  thereto,  thinking  the  King's 
honor,  as  well  as  his  own,  engaged  in  its  success.  He 
ordered,  therefore,  a  great  platform  to  be  raised  in  the 
quarter  of  St.  Alberto,  which  might  command  the  town, 
as  much  as  possible,  and  gave  new  orders,  that  Bucquoy 
should  advance,  with  all  possible  speed,  the  great  bank, 
which  was  designed  to  obstruct  the  channel  of  Brcdene. 
Having  given  these  orders,  he  retired  to  Ghent,  and  left 
the  camp-master,  John  di  Rivas,  in  command  of  the 
siege,  who  employed  himself,  diligently,  in  forwarding 
these  important  works.  u  To  the  first  and  largest  foun- 
dation, which  was  well  incorporated  with  wet  sand,  and 
other  condense  matter,  others  of  the  like  sort  were  added, 
till  the  dike  was  raised  to  the  height  it  ought  to  be  ;  and 
the  breadth  thereof  was  extraordinarily  great.  In  addi- 


300  GREAT  EVENTS. 

tion  to  the  ordinary  plain  thereof,  upon  which  two  great 
cannons  might  stand  abreast,  there  was  a  great  parapet 
raised  in  it  against  the  town,  to  shelter  the  soldiers, 
which,  being  in  divers  places  furnished  with  artillery,  did 
greatly  endamage  the  enemy  likewise  on  that  side.  This 
work  was  made  in  a  sandy  and  low  situation,  whither  the 
sea,  at  full  tide,  came  ;  so  that  it  cannot  be  said  with 
how  much  expense,  labor,  and  loss  of  blood,  this  work 
was  advanced."  Still,  the  town  continued  to  receive 
succors,  as  plentifully  as  ever,  and  the  works  proceeded, 
so  slowly,  from  without,  that  the  hopes  of  bringing  the 
siege  to  a  happy  end  did  daily  rather  decrease  than  in- 
crease. Yet  Rivas  was  very  diligent  in  discharging  his 
duty  ;  the  platform  was  completed,  and  mounted  with 
cannon,  and  the  besieged  were  driven  from  some  of  their 
outer  works  ;  these  were  then  furnished  with  artillery, 
which  he  turned  against  the  fortifications  which  shelter- 
ed the  town,  on  that  side. 

"  Some  progress  was,  likewise,  daily  made,  on  the  Bre- 
dene  side,  in  advancing  the  great  dike.  Bucquoy  had 
the  chief  charge  thereof,  and  it  was  called  by  his  name. 
And  he  used  all  possible  diligence  to  harass  the  town, 
and  the  entrance  of  the  channel,  on  that  side.  But  there 
appeared  no  less  vigilance  in  the  besieged  ;  their  courage 
abounded,  according  as  the  town  did  abound  with  all 
sorts  of  provisions.  There  was  hardly  any  one  day,  in 
which  they  did  not  sally  out  ;  nor  did  the  besiegers  do 
any  thing  which  cost  not  much  labor  and  blood.  The 
platform  was  made  chiefly  of  bavins  and  other  wood,  and 
the  great  dike  was  composed  of  the  like  materials.  Two 
furious  batteries  were  therefore  levelled  from  the  town, 
with  artificial  fireballs,  against  these  two  works,  to  set 
them  on  fire,  and  endamage  them,  by  that  means.  Nor 
did  they  fail  in  their  design  ;  for,  by  long  battering,  they 
t  took  fire,  and  were  thereby  so  torn  and  spoiled, 
that  it  cost  much  time  and  the  death  of  many  men,  to  re- 
make them.  Nor  was  the  enemies'  loss  less,  either  in 
number  or  cjualiiy. 

u  Pompeio  Torgone,  a  famous  engineer,  came,  at 
this  time,  from  Italy  to  Flanders,  drawn  thither  by  the 


SIEGE  OF  OSTEND.  301 

fame  of  this  siege.  He  had  a  very  ready  wit,  whicn 
made  him  apt  for  inventions  in  his  calling  ;  but,  having 
never,  till  then,  passed  from  the  theory  to  the  practical 
part  in  military  affairs,  it  was  soon  seen,  that  many  of 
his  imaginations  did  not,  upon  trial,  prove  such,  as  in  ap- 
pearance they  promised  to  be.  He  began  to  build  a 
castle  of  wood,  upon  boats  fastened  together.  The  castle 
was  round,  high,  and  large,  proportionably.  On  the  top 
thereof,  it  was  capable  of  six  great  pieces  of  artillery, 
on  one  side,  and,  on  the  other  side,  there  was  place 
enough  for  those  soldiers  who  were  to  attend  them. 
Torgone  intended  to  bring  this  machine  into  the  mouth 
of  the  channel,  and  to  firmly  fix  it  there,  where  succor 
was  brought  into  Ostend,  hoping,  thereby,  to  keep  the 
town  from  relief.  But  this  could  not  so  soon  be  done, 
but  that  it  was  preceded  by  the  other  work  of  drawing 
the  great  dike  to  the  same  channel,  whereupon  to  raise 
afterwards  a  fort,  by  which  that  passage  might  be  so 
much  the  more  impeded.  To  accelerate  this  work, 
likewise,  Torgone  bethought  himself  of  other  engines, 
by  means  of  which  the  great  quantity  of  materials, 
whereof  the  dike  was  made,  might  the  more  easily  be 
brought  into  use.  These  materials  being  put  together, 
in  manner  as  they  ought  to  be,  he  placed  a  certain  num- 
ber of  little  barrels  under  the  hollow  of  the  middle  thereof, 
and  on  the  sides,  by  which,  at  full  sea,  the  engines  float- 
ed, and  were  afterwards  brought,  by  cranes,  to  join  with 
the  dike,  in  that  part  where  the  work  was  continued  on. 
These  engines  were  called  floats.  But,  such  was  the 
tempest  of  the  enemies'  cannon-shot,  which  incessantly 
fell  upon  them,  when  they  rested  upon  the  sand  ;  and 
then,  again,  they  were  so  injured  by  the  sea-storms,  that 
ofttimes  the  work  of  many  days  was  destroyed  in  a  few 
hours.  And  really  it  was  pitiful,  to  see  how  much  blood 
was  there  shed,  and  how  little  the  meaner  sort  of  people, 
who  were  employed  therein,  did,  out  of  a  desire  of  gain, 
value  it." 

This  was  the  condition  of  Ostend,  when  the  Archduke 
bethought  himself  to  give  the  care  of  the  siege  to  the 
Marquis   Spinola.     Great,  certainly,   was  the  honor  of 
26  G.  E. 


302  GREAT  EVENTS. 

such  an  employment,  yet  there  seemed  so  little  prospect 
of  success,  that  Spinola  hesitated  for  some  time  ;  but, 
finally,  being  persuaded  there  was  more  of  hope  than 
fear,  in  the  offer  that  was  made  him,  he  resolved  cheer- 
fully to  accept  it. 

"  The  first  thing,  the  Marquis  did,  was,  to  make  great 
store  of  provision,  of  all  such  materials  as  were  necessa- 
ry, as  well  for  the  work  of  the  great  dike,  on  the  Bre- 
dene  side,  as  for  the  other  works,  which  were  to  be  made 
on  the  side  of  St.  Alberto  ;  on  which  side,  the  town  was 
chiefly  intended  to  be  straitened  and  forced  ;  the  ground 
over  against  it  was  all  sandy,  and  full  of  channels  and 
little  rivulets,  besides  those  two  greater  channels,  already 
mentioned,  which  fell  into  the  sea.  The  same  sea,  like- 
wise, at  the  flood,  did  so  whirl  about  every  place,  there- 
abouts, that  earth  was  not  any  where  to  be  found  of  which 
to  make  trenches  ;  these  had,  therefore,  to  be  supplied 
with  the  above  materials.  This  was  chiefly  brought  by 
the  floats,  invented  by  Torgone  ;  and,  though  the  great 
dike  did  daily  advance,  yet  it  was  known,  that  such  a 
work  would  prove  too  long  and  too  uncertain.  The 
hope  of  keeping  out  succor  becoming  every  day  less  and 
less,  Spinola  bent  all  his  endeavors  to  take  the  town  by 
force.  We  told  you,  before,  that  all  vessels  were  hinder- 
ed, by  a  fort,  from  coming  into  the  lesser  channel,  which 
falls  into  the  sea,  on  the  St.  Alberto  side.  Yet  the 
channel  itself  was  of  great  advantage  to  the  enemy,  on 
that  side,  as  it  served  for  a  great  ditch  to  their  counter- 
scarp, which  was  strong  of  itself,  and  yet  made  stronger 
by  many  flanks,  by  which  it  was  defended.  Before  the 
Catholics  could  come  to  assault  the  counterscarp,  they 
must  first  pass  over  the  channel,  which  it  was  difficult  to 
do,  with  safety  or  shelter,  in  any  part  therqof,  as  it  was 
evidently  seen,  that  many  of  them  must  perish,  being 
exposed  to  be  injured  by  the  enemy.  The  attack  was 
led  on,  on  four  sides,  from  the  St.  Alberto  quarter.  The 
Germans  wrought  nearer  the  sea  ;  then  followed  the 
Spaniards  ;  after  them,  the  Italians  ;  and,  on  the  outmost 
side,  more  towards  land,  the  Walloons  and  Burgonians. 
Great  was  the  fervency  of  all  these  nations  ;  and  such  a 


SIEGE   OF  OSTEND.  303 

contention  was  there  among  them,  in  striving  which  of 
them  should  most  advance  the  works,  that  the  soldiers' 
emulation  seemed  rather  a  contest  between  enemies  than 
between  rivals.  The  channel  was  narrower  and  more 
shallow  where  the  Burgonians  and  Walloons  wrought. 
They  were,  therefore,  the  first  that  passed  over  it,  and 
afterwards  the  other  nations  did  the  like.  To  pass  over 
it,  a  great  quantity  of  the  materials  before  mentioned  were 
thrown  into  every  part  thereof,  where  the  aforesaid  na- 
tions wrought.  Those  materials  were  reduced  to  dikes 
or  banks,  upon  which  the  soldiers  advanced  towards  the 
town.  But  very  many  of  them  were  slain  and  wounded. 
For  the  defendants,  with  their  hail  of  musket-shot,  and 
tempest  of  greater  artillery,  charged  with  little  bullets  and 
shot  in  a  great  quantity,  and  ofttimes  with  artificial  fire, 
ma*de  the  Catholics'  work,  on  all  sides,  very  bloody.  The 
soldiers,  that  they  might  enjoy  the  best  shelter  that  they 
could,  invented  many  fences  ;  some  consisted  of  gabions, 
filled  with  earth,  well  joined  and  fastened  together  ;  oth- 
ers of  long  bavins,  which  stood  upright,  and  so  thick,  that 
they  were  musket  proof ;  and  others,  of  several  forms, 
made  of  the  before-mentioned  materials.  Torgone  in- 
vented, likewise,  a  great  cart,  from  which  a  bridge, 
made  of  cloth  and  cords,  might,  unexpectedly,  be  thrown 
over  the  channel,  and  so  the  enemies'  defences  the  easier 
be  assaulted.  The  cart  stood  upon  four  very  high 
wheels ;  and,  upon  the  fore  part  thereof,  rose  up,  as  it 
were,  the  mast  of  a  ship,  which  served  chiefly  to  let  down 
and  to  take  up  the  bridge.  But  the  whole  bulk  proved 
to  be  of  so  cumbersome  a  size,  and  so  hard  to  be  man- 
aged, that,  before  it  was  undertaken,  it  was  known  it 
could  work  to  no  advantage.  The  aforesaid  fences  were 
wrought,  where  the  artillery  of  the  town  could  not  reach  ; 
and,  at  the  flowing  of  the  sea,  they  wrere  brought  upon 
the  floats,  to  the  places,  where  they  were  made  use  of. 
Great  was  the  mortality,  likewise,  of  those  that  wrought 
here  ;  the  enemy  making  usually  such  havoc  of  them, 
with  their  muskets,  artillery,  and  sallies,  that,  ofttimes, 
hardly  one  of  them  could  be  saved.  But  money  still  pro- 
cured new  men,  and  ofttimes  the  soldiers  themselves 


304  GREAT  EVENTS. 

wrought.  Nor  was  Spinola  wanting,  in  being,  as  it  were, 
in  all  places  at  all  times,  and  in  exposing  himself,  as 
well  as  any  of  the  rest,  to  all  labor  and  danger  ;  encour- 
aging some,  rewarding  others,  and  behaving  himself  so, 
that  his  imitating,  without  any  manner  of  respect  unto  him- 
self, the  most  hazardous  works  of  others,  made  the  rest 
the  more  ready  to  imitate  his. 

u  When  all  the  nations  had  passed  the  channel,  each 
of  them  began,  with  like  emulation,  to  force  the  ravelins 
and  half-moons,  which  sheltered  the  counterscarp.  And 
the  Walloons  and  Burgonians,  by  reason  of  their  quarter, 
were  the  first  that  did  it,  but  with  much  effusion  of  blood, 
even  of  the  noblest  amongst  them  ;  for,  amongst  the  rest, 
Catris,  a  Walloon  camp-master,  was  lost,  a  valiant  and 
greatly  experienced  soldier,  whom  Spinola  highly  es- 
teemed, both  for  his  deeds  and  counsel.  With  the  like 
progress,  and  no  less  loss  of  blood,  did  the  other  nations 
advance.  So  that  the  enemies,  at  last,  lost  all  the  forti- 
fications which  they  had,  without  their  principal  line  ; 
about  which,  ran  a  great  ditch,  but  not  so  hard  to  pass, 
as  was  the  channnel  which  fenced  the  counterscarp.  The 
easier  doing  of  it  made  the  Catholics  hope  better  in  the 
effecting  thereof ;  wherefore,  full  of  fresh  courage,  they 
prepared  to  continue  their  labors,  more  heartily  than  ever, 
that  they  might  the  sooner  end  the  siege  ;  but  the  Winter, 
being  already  come,  much  hindered  their  works,  and  the 
sea  did  then  more  destroy  them  by  her  tempests.  The 
enemy,  likewise,  .made  very  fierce  opposition  ;  they  set 
up  batteries  within,  against  the  batteries  without  ;  mines 
opposed  countermines  ;  they  repaired  themselves,  on  all 
sides  ;  and,  as  fast  as  one  rampart  was  lost,  they  set  up 
another.  So  that  the  Catholics  had  to  advance,  as  it 
were,  by  inches  ;  and  yet  they  did  so  advance,  that,  by 
the  Spring,  they  had  got  well  forward  into  the  ditch. 

"  These  progressions  oT  Marquis  Spinola,  together 
with  his  daily  proceedings,  made  the  United  Provinces 
shrewdly  afraid,  that  they  should  at  last  lose  Ostend.  A 
consultation  was  therefore  held,  by  their  chief  command- 
ers, how  the  town  might  be  best  preserved, — which  might 
be  done  by  two  ways  ;  either  by  some  important  diver- 


SIEGE   OF  OSTEND.  305 

sion,  or  by  raising  the  siege  by  main  force.  The  second 
way  brought  with  it  such  difficulties,  that  the  first  was  cho- 
sen. Wherefore,  they  resolved  to  besiege  Sluys  ;  a  town 
which  likewise  stood  upon  the  sea,  and  was  of  so  great 
consequence,  that  it  did  rather  exceed  than  come  short 
of  Ostend,  in  importance. 

Sluys  was  accordingly  besieged  and  taken.  It  afford- 
ed great  satisfaction  to  the  Flemish,  that,  in  three  months' 
time,  and  with  the  loss  of  so  little  blood,  they  had  made 
a  greater  acquisition  than  that  of  Ostend,  which  would 
cost  above  three  years'  expense  of  time,  and  an  infinity 
of  Spanish  gold  and  blood,  if  it  could  hold  out  no  longer. 
But,  though  Spinola  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  re- 
lieve Sluys,  he  could  not  be  prevailed  on  to  break  up  the 
siege  of  Ostend,  and  his  troops  were  inflamed  the  more, 
by  a  desire  of  counterbalancing  that  loss.  So  that,  at 
last,  after  much  slaughter,  they  won  the  ditch,  and  the 
first  line  of  fortifications  ;  but,  meanwhile,  a  new  one  had 
been  raised,  by  those  within. 

"  Sluys  was  just  then  lost;  and  it  was  feared  that 
Count  Maurice  would  come  to  the  relief  of  Ostend. 
The  Catholics  being,  therefore,  so  much  the  more  moved, 
and  Spinola  being  again  returned,  it  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pressed with  what  fervor  they  fell  to  their  works,  on  all 
sides.  The  greatest  progress  was  made  towards  the  old 
town  of  Ostend  ;  because,  when  they  should  have  won 
that,  they  might  easily  hinder  the  entrance  into  the  chan- 
nel, by  the  mouth  whereof  succor  was  brought  from  the, 
sea  ;  and,  as  the  new  town  was  much  commanded  by  the 
old,  therefore  Spinola  did  the  more  re-enforce  his  batter- 
ies, assaults,  mines,  and  all  his  other  most  efficacious 
works,  on  that  side,  than  on  any  other  ;  nor  was  it  long, 
ere  the  Catholics  had  almost  wholly  taken  it. 

u  They  likewise  advanced,  after  the  same  manner, 
against  the  new  fortifications,  so  that  the  besieged  had 
no  place,  whither  to  retreat ;  wherefore,  wanting  ground 
to  defend,  when  they  most  abounded  in  all  things  for  de- 
fence, they  were  at  last  forced  to  surrender  the  town  ; 
which  was  done  about  the  middle  of  September,  upon 
the  most  honorable  conditions  that  they  could  desire. 
26* 


306  GREAT   EVENTS. 

Count  Maurice  was  often  minded  to  attempt  the  succor 
by  main  force  ;  but,  considering  that  he  was  to  enter  into 
an  enemy's  country,  amongst  strong  and  well-guarded 
towns,  and  that  he  should  meet  with  men  that  were  very 
ready  to  fight,  he  thought  it  no;  proper,  after  his  prosperous 
success  at  Sluys,  to  hazard  falling  into  some  misfortune, 
as,  upon  such  an  occasion,  he  might  peradventure  do, 
and  therefore  he  forebore  to  do  it.  It  was  a  remarkable 
thing,  to  see  so  many  soldiers  march  out  of  a  town  ;  for 
there  were  above  four  thousand  of  them,  all  strong  and 
healthful,  they  having  enjoyed  great  plenty  of  all  things 
in  Ostend,  by  reason  of  their  continual  succors.  So  that, 
besides  great  store  of  artillery,  there  was  found  in  the 
town  such  abundance  of  victuals,  ammunition,  and  of 
whatsoever  else  may  be  imagined,  for  the  defence  of  a 
royal  town,  that  the  like  was  never  known  to  be  in  any 
other  place. 

"  Thus  ended  the  siege  of  Ostend  ;  very  memorable, 
doubtless,  in  itself,  but  much  more,  in  consideration  of 
the  great  expense  of  moneys  and  time,  which  the  winning 
and  losing  of  it  cost.  The  siege  continued  above  three 
years  ;  in  which  time,  the  prevailing  opinion  was,  that 
there  died,  by  the  sword  and  by  sickness,  above  a  hun- 
dred thousand  men,  between  the  one  and  the  other  side  ; 
whereby  it  may  be  conceived,  what  proportionable  moneys 
and  other  things  were  therein  spent.  The  town  having 
been  yielded  up,  the  Archduke  and  Infanta  had  the  curi- 
osity to  go  and  see  it,  and  went  from  Gaunt  thither,  where 
they  found  nothing  but  a  misshapen  chaos  of  earth,  which 
hardly  retained  any  show  of  the  first  Ostend.  Ditches 
filled  up  ;  curtains  beaten  down ;  bulwarks  torn  in  pieces  ; 
half-moons,  flanks,  and  redoubts,  so  confused  one  with 
another,  that  they  could  not  be  distinguished  ;  nor  could 
it  be  known  on  which  side  the  attack,  or  on  which  the 
defence,  was  ;  yet  they  would  know  all,  and  receive  the 
whole  relation,  from  Spinola's  own  mouth.  He  repre- 
<;d,  in  full,  the  last  posture  of  the  siege  ;  he  show- 
ed the  Spaniards'  quarters,  and  those  of  the  Italians, 
as  also  those  of  each  other  nation.  He  related,  how 
stoutly  they  contended,  who  should  outvie  one  another  in 


SIEGE   OF   OSTEND.  307 

pains-taking ;  on  which  part,  the  greatest  resistance  was 
made,  within  ;  where  the  dispute  was  most  difficult,  with- 
out ;  where  they  wanted  ground  to  retreat  unto  ;  where 
the  enemy  used  their  utmost  power  ;  and  where,  at  last, 
the  town  was  surrendered.  The  Archduke  saw  the  great 
platform,  the  great  dike,  and  whatsoever  else,  fit  to  excite 
curiosity,  might  be  suggested  by  the  unusual  character  of 
that  siege  ;  but  not  without  the  Infanta's  great  compas- 
sion, and  even  tears,  by  looking  upon  the  horror  of  those 
parts  where  the  sword,  fire,  sea,  and  earth,  may  be  said 
to  have  conspired  together,  in  making  so  long  and  so 
miserable  a  destruction  of  Christians.  They  both  did 
very  much  commend  Spinola,  and  also  thanked  the  rest 
of  the  commanders,  who  had  deserved  well  in  that  enter- 
prise. Nor  did  they  less  congratulate  the  inferior  officers 
and  soldiers,  who  had  exposed  themselves,  most,  to  those 
dangers." 


308  GREAT  EVENTS. 


THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  INVINCIBLE  AR- 
MADA, IN  1588. 

BY  JOHN  STOWE. 

THE  contest  between  the  Protestants  and  Roman  Cath- 
olics had  divided  all  Europe  into  two  great  hostile  mas- 
ses. An  active  counter-reformation,  as  it  has  been  called 
by  a  distinguished  historian,  had  begun,  on  the  part  of 
the  Roman  Catholics.  Many  eminent  men,  and  whole 
corporate  societies,  within  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
were  actively  engaged  in  reforming  abuses,  and  bringing 
back  to  its  folds  those  who  had  been  separated  by  the 
Reformation  ;  while  several  princes  strove  to  accomplish 
the  same  object,  by  forcible  and  violent  measures.  The 
most  prominent  among  these  was  Philip  the  Second,  King 
of  Spain,  a  morose  bigot,  both  in  religion  and  politics  ; 
cruel,  and  without  faith,  whenever  he  conceived  it  to  be 
necessary,  and  apparently  shut  out,  by  cold  selfishness, 
from  any  friendly  fellow-feeling  for  his  kind.  The  Nether- 
lands, dependent  upon  his  crown,  had  risen  against  him. 
It  was  partly  his  wanton  tyranny,  and  partly  the  Protes- 
tant spirit  which  was  fast  spreading  in  those  countries,  and 
his  denial  of  any  liberty  of  conscience,  which  had  brought 
about  this  memorable  and  «;rout  event,  of  vast  importance 
in  the  history  of  civilized  man.  Elizabeth  of  England,  a 
princess  of  great  wisdom,  and  who  rested  her  power,  in  a 
great  measure,  upon  Protestantism,  had  aided  the  Protes- 
tant insurgents  of  the  Low  Countries.  This  circumstance, 
as  well  as  the  fact  that  England  was  the  most  powerful  of 
the  united  Protestant  states,  and  therefore  the  greatest  po- 
litical prop  of  the  Protestant  religion,  or  that  it  might  easi- 
ly become  such,  made  her  an  object  of  peculiar  attention 
to  Philip  and  the  Pope.  They  considered,  indeed,  that 
nothing  would  be  more  conducive  to  the  general  reestab- 
lishment  of  the  Roman  Catholic  rdi-riim.  than  tin-  reduc- 
tion of  that  Queen  to  a  state  of  dependence,  or  her  de- 
thronement, which,  probably,  was  no  less  passionately 
desired,  on  account  of  the  severe  laws  against  Roman 
Catholics,  in  England.  Elizabeth,  on  her  part,  feared 


DESTRUCTION  OP  THE  INVINCIBLE  ARMADA.     309 

the  increase  of  the  power  of  Spain.  For  this  reason,  she 
had  aided  the  Netherlanders.  She  doubtless  considered 
an  open  war,  between  England  and  Spain,  as  unavoidable, 
and  had  suffered  Sir  Francis  Drake,  in  April,  1587,  to  de- 
stroy, in  the  port  of  Cadiz,  a  considerable  fleet  of  the  Span- 
iards. Philip  of  Spain,  after  serious  deliberations  in  his 
council,  had  resolved  to  reduce  the  power  of  England  ; 
and,  if  possible,  to  conquer  her.  For  this  purpose,  a  fleet 
was  armed,  of  such  magnitude,  that  it  was  believed  to  be 
sure  of  success,  and  was  called  the  Invincible  Armada. 
In  the  port  of  Lisbon,  alone,  were  collected  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  sail  of  vessels,  with  two  thousand  six 
hundred  and  twenty  cannons,  eight  thousand  sailors,  and 
twenty  thousand  soldiers,  not  reckoning  the  smaller  ves- 
sels and  their  crews.  The  fleet  was  well  provided  with 
all  necessary  equipments  ;  and  monks  and  priests  were 
not  wanting  on  board,  to  preach  the  Roman  Catholic  faith 
in  the  conquered  country.  Other  armaments  took  place 
to  join  this.  Pope  Sixtus  the  Fifth  had  once  more  order- 
ed the  dethronement  of  Elizabeth,  and  anathematized  her  ; 
he  had  charged  Philip  to  conquer  her  kingdom  ;  and  had 
called  upon  every  one  to  deliver  her,  alive  or  dead,  into 
his  hands. 

Elizabeth  was  well  aware  of  the  greatness  of  her  dan- 
ger ;  but  never  did  she  rise  higher,  or  show  herself  more 
worthy  of  her  throne, <than  at  this  period.  Her  Roman 
Catholic  subjects  too,  forgetting  all  religious  animosities, 
and  considering  the  conquest  of  their  native  country  the 
greatest  of  all  disgraces,  flocked  to  her  standards,  as  eager- 
ly as  the  Protestants.  From  the  highest  to  the  lowest  ranks, 
they  manifested  a  truly  English  spirit,  and  promptly  offered 
their  means  toward  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  war. 
Thus  the  hope  of  Philip,  that  England  would  be  torn  by 
religious  factions,  while  he  was  attacking  her  from  with- 
out, was  happily  foiled.  A  British  army,  of  great  number, 
was  kept  ready  to.  receive  the  enemy,  upon  his  landing  on 
the  English  shore.  A  large  body  of  troops  was  encamped 
at  Tilbury,  a  place  at  the  estuary  of  the  river  Thames,  to 
protect  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom.  Thither,  Elizabeth 
proceeded,  and  harangued  the  troops,  in  a  speech,  which 
Sir  James  Mackintosh  calls  "  one  of  the  most  stirring  spec- 
imens in  existence,  of  the  rhetoric  of  the  camp."  The 
interesting  nature  of  the  occasion,  and  the  importance  of 
this  branch  of  rhetoric,  which  is  necessarily  more  national 


310  GREAT  EVENTS. 

than  any  other,  because  it  aims  at  producing,  upon  a  large 
mass  of  the  effective  force  of  the  nation,  a  direct  and  pow- 
erful impression,  with  a  view  to  immediate  action,  induce 
me  to  give  the  address  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  I  shall  insert 
it  in  Stowe's  account,  in  its  proper  place. 

What  would  have  become  of  England,  if  she  had  been 
conquered,  and  how  this  calamitous  event  would  have  af- 
fected Europe,  no  human  mind,  of  course,  is  able  to  see  ; 
but  it  would  seem  certain,  that  England  could  never  have 
been  kept,  for  any  length  of  time,  under  the  Spanish  sway. 
It  is  impossible  to  retain  in  subjection  a  distant  depen- 
dency, if  it  be  populous,  and  if  the  people  are  animated  by 
a  manly  spirit,  love  of  independence,  and  devotion  to  their 
endangered  or  persecuted  religion.  But  the  fearful  strug- 
gles, necessary  to  expel  such  an  enemy  from  the  country, 
or  perhaps  to  extirpate  him  within  it,  could  not  have  pass- 
ed, it  may  be  safely  said,  without  leaving  a  deep  impres- 
sion upon  the  national  character  of  the  English,  or  perhaps 
changing  it,  in  some  essential  traits.  Nor  can  it  be  doubt- 
ed, that,  had  England  been  conquered,  the  fate  of  the 
Netherlands  would  have  been  far  different  from  that  which 
history  now  records  ;  and  that  the  all-important  relation 
in  which  those  two  countries  were  placed,  at  the  later  pe- 
riod of  William  the  Third,  could  never  have  subsisted. 
No  human  eye  can  see,  how  England  should  have  been 
able,  under  these  different  supposed  circumstances,  to 
form  that  nucleus  of  constitutional  law  and  civil  liberty, 
which  was  to  outlast  the  period  of  concentrated  and  abso- 
lute royal  power  upon  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  from 
which  the  European  race  was  to  receive  again  its  renewed 
impulse  in  the  career  of  constitutional  liberty.  Every  one, 
therefore,  who  values  civil  liberty,  will  attribute  the  great 
victory  achieved  over  the  Spaniards,  to  Him,  to  whom 
the  Dutch  attributed  it,  when  they  ordered  a  medal  to  be 
struck,  commemorating  this  great  event,  with  this  scroll 

"  AFFLAVIT  DEU8  ET  DI8BIPATI  BUNT." 

God  breathed,  and  they  were  dispersed.* 

We  ought  not  to  pass,  in  silence,  the  elevated  manner 

*  This  inscription  is  not  unfrequcntly  cited,  ;i^  tli at  of  an  English 
modal.  Van  rampcM,  in  hi-  IINt..ry  nY  tin-  NVtlicrlaixK  says,  that 
the  Dutch  rw-dal  \*  t<»  In-  found,  \\ith  m-vcrnl  nth  M  F-oon, 

Nedcrlandschc  Historiepcnningcn.  It  matters  little,  t^whoin  the  de- 
vice belongs,  so  that  both  were  animated  with  the  spirit  which  it 
expreuM. 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  INVINCIBLE  ARMADA.     311 

in  which  Philip  received  the  news  of  this  disaster  and  the 
commanders  of  this  unfortunate  expedition.  He  remained 
collected,  gave  orders  for  the  relief  of  the  sick,  the  wound- 
ed, and  the  orphans-,  and  said  :  "I  armed  the  fleet  against 
England,  not  against  the  fury  of  the  sea  ;  and  I  bow  to 
the  decrees  of  God."* 

JOHN  STOWE,  or  STOW,  an  annalist  at  the  time  of  Eliza- 
beth, and  from  whom  the  following  account  is  taken,  was 
the  son  of  a  merchant-tailor,  in  London,  and  born  in  1525. 
About  the  year  1560,  he  formed  the  design  of  composing 
annals  of  the  English  history  ;  and  to  this  object  sacrificed 
his  trade,  travelling  about,  on  foot,  to  collect  materials. 
After  having  experienced  many  difficulties,  in  maintaining 
himself,  while  pursuing  his  favorite  studies,  he  was  sus- 
pected of  Roman  Catholicism  ;  and  a  number  of  Roman 
Catholic  books  being  found  in  his  house,  when  it  was 
searched  by  the  order  of  the  Bishop  of  London,  the  char- 
acter of  a  disaffected  person  was  fixed  upon  him.  His 
own  brother  made  use  of  this  suspicion,  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  away  his  life,  by  preferring  one  hundred  and 
forty  articles  against  him,  before  the  ecclesiastical  com- 
mission ;  but  the  infamous  character  of  the  witnesses 
saved  Stowe.  His  first  book,  '  A  Summarie  of  Englishe 
Chronicles,'*|"  had  then  already  been  printed.  His  '  Sur- 
vey of  London,'  &c.,  appeared  in  1598,  and  has  been  sev- 
eral times  reprinted,  forming,  as  Rees  says,  the  basis  of 
all  the  subsequent  histories  of  the  metropolis.  He  never 
was  able  to  publish  his  large  Chronicle,  or  History  of 
England,  for  which  he  had  been  collecting  materials  for 
forty  years.  He  only  lived  to  print  an  abstract  of  it,  in 
the  year  1600,  entitled  '  Flores  Historiarum,  or  Annals  of 
England.'  Edmund  Howes  published,  from  his  papers,  a 
folio  volume,  entitled  '  Stow's  Chronicle.'  Stowe,  after  the 
death  of  his  patron,  Archbishop  Parker,  in  1575,  was  re- 
duced to  extreme  poverty,  and  finally  sunk  into  a  state  of 
wretched  destitution.  He  petitioned  the  Lord  Mayor  and 
Aldermen  of  London  for  a  pittance,  stating,  that,  for  twenty- 
five  years,  he  had  been  employed  in  compiling  and  publish- 
ing divers  summaries,  recording  the  memorable  acts  of  fa- 
mous citizens,  but  he  received  nothing.  At  a  later  period, 
when  poor  Stowe,  now  in  his  seventy-eighth  year,  applied 

*  Khevenhiller  iii.  640.     Strada  ii.  565. 
t  First  printed  in  1565. 


312  GREAT  EVENTS. 

to  the  King  for  some  assistance,  merely  to  protect  him 
against  extreme  want,  James  the  First  granted  him  a  li- 
cense to  repair  to  churches  or  other  places,  to  receive  the 
gratuities  and  charitable  benevolence  of  well-disposed  peo- 
ple. I  do  not  know  whether  we  are  to  understand  this  as 
an  actual  license  to  beg,  as  the  King's  beadsmen  were 
licensed  beggars,  in  Scotland  ;  or  whether  Stovve  was  au- 
thorized to  receive  the  money  collected  at  church  by  the 
proper  officers.  We  should  adopt  the  latter  supposition, 
were  it  not  that  the  King  can  hardly  be  presumed  to  have 
made  such  a  disposition  of  the  money  which,  no  doubt,  by 
custom  or  law,  was  already  appropriated  for  parochial  pur- 
poses. We  therefore  incline  to  the  first  view  ;  though 
the  meanness  of  the  royal  act  is  greater  than  we  are  pre- 
pared to  find,  even  in  James  the  First.  However,  the 
City  of  London  was  no  more  charitable  toward  him,  than 
was  the  King  ;  and  Stowe  died,  oppressed  by  poverty  and 
painful  diseases,  in  the  year  1605.  The  reader  will  soon 
perceive,  that  the  following  account  is  given  in  such  a 
style,  and  with  such  a  selection  of  words,  as  prevent  us 
from  being  absorbed  by  the  subject,  because  we  are  per- 
petually reminded  of  the  Author. 

Stowe  was  neither  possessed  of  any  great  degree  of  nat- 
ural taste,  nor  had  he  attained  to  that  greatest  and  most 
perfect  refinement,  as  a  writer,  which  consists  in  being  en- 
tirely natural  and  easy,  so  that  the  reader  is  not  once  re- 
minded of  the  author's  skill  or  want  of  skill,  except  when 
reflecting  upon  his  power  of  keeping  the  mind  wholly  oc- 
cupied with  the  subject,  long  after  the  perusal  of  the  com- 
position. 

"  ALTHOUGH  this  present  yeere,  1587,  were  but  as 
the  vigil  of  the  next  ensuing  yeere,  1588,  concerning 
which  yeere,  many  ancient  and  strange  prophecies,  in 
divers  languages,  and  many  excellent  astronomers,  of 
sundry  nations,  had,  in  very  plain  tonnes,  foretold,  that 
the  yeere  1588  should  be  most  fatall  and  ominous  unto 
all  estates,  concluding  in  these  words,  or  to  the  like  ef- 
fect ;  namely,  '  And  if  in  that  yeere,  ilio  world  doe  not 
perish  and  utterly  decay,  yet  empires  all,  and  kingdomes 
after,  shall  ;  and  no  man  to  mis(?  himself  shall  know  no 
way,  and  that  for  ever  after  it  shall  be  called  the  c  Yeere 
of  Wonder,7 '  &c.,  yet,  for  divers  yeeres  past,  by  reason 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  INVINCIBLE  ARMADA.     313 

of  the  aforesaid  generall  predictions,  all  Europe  stood  at 
gaze,  vehemently  expecting  more  strange  and  terrible  al- 
terations, both  in  imperiall  and  regall  estates,  than  ever 
happened,  since  the  world  began.  Which  sayd  universall 
terror  was  this  present  yeere  half  abated,  and  plainely 
discovered  that  England  was  the  maine  subject  of  that 
time's  operation  :  for,  albeit,  the  Spanish  provision,  for 
three  yeeres  past,  were  discerned  to  be  wonderous  great, 
for  speciall  service,  by  sea  and  land,  yet  used  they  all 
possible  secrecy  concerning  their  intent,  until  they  were 
fully  furnished. 

"  The  Queene  and  councell,  for  two  yeeres  space, 
caused  the  ministers  to  manifest  unto  their  congregations 
the  furious  purpose  of  the  Spanish  King,  Dukes  of  Par- 
rna  and  Guyse,  with  the  dangerous  dissimulation  of  the 
French  King,  by  whose  paines  and  industry  the  whole 
communality  became  of  one  hearte  and  mind,  and  began 
to  retaine  a  stronger  opinion  touching  the  Spaniards  set 
tied  resolution  for  the  invasion  of  England,  than  either 
Queene  or  councell.  The  English  nation  were  so  com- 
bined in  heart,  that  I  here  confesse  I  want  art  lively  to 
expresse  the  sympathy  of  love  between  the  subjects  and 
the  Sovereigne. 

"  This  yeere,  1587,  being  fully  spent,  and  each  man's 
mind,  more  forward  than  the  Spring,  of  infinite  desire  to 
grapple  with  the  enemie,  after  many  musters,  both  of 
horse  and  foote,  and  due  survey  of  Englands  chiefest 
strength,  to  wit,  navigation,  captaines,  commanders, 
leaders,  and  fit  officers,  were  appointed  unto  their  severall 
charges,  over  all  which  land  forces,  Robert,  Earle  of 
Leicester,  was  lord  generall,  and  Henry,  Lord  Houns- 
don,  was  generall  for  the  Queenes  person. 

"  Cities,  counties,  townes,  and  villages,  the  cinqueports, 
and  all  other  havens  of  England,  manifested  as  great  for- 
wardnesse,  in  their  zealous  love  and  dutie,  as  either  sub- 
jects could  perform,  or  prince  expect.  To  single  out 
the  admirable  dexterity  and  bounty  of  any  one  particular 
place,  or  people,  were  apparent  wrong  to  all,  yet,  for  a 
taste  of  trueth  in  all,  thus  much  may  bee  sayd  for  Lon- 
don. After  the  councell  had  demaunded  what  the  citty 
27  G.  E 


314  GREAT   EVENTS. 

would  doe  in  their  Prince  and  countryes  right,  tho  Lord 
maior  and  aldermen  humbly  besought  their  honours  to  set 
downe  what  their  wisedomes  thought  requisite,  in  such  a 
case  :  the  lords  demanded  five  thousand  men  and  fifteene 
ships  ;  the  city  craved  two  days  respite  for  answere,  which 
was  granted,  and  then  entreated  their  lordships,  in  signe 
of  their  perfect  love  and  loyaltie  to  their  Prince  and 
country,  kindly  to  accept  tenne  thousand  men  and  thirty 
shippes,  amply  furnished.  And  even  as  London,  Lon- 
don-like, gave  precedent,  the  whole  kingdome  kept  true 
ranke  and  equipage. 

"  The  whole  nobility,  most  nobly  like  themselves^and 
like  planets  of  the  higher  orbes,  in  kind  conjunction  knit 
their  hearts  in  one,  whose  princely  valour  equalling  their 
love,  assured  their  Soveraigne  of  triumphant  victory." 

*  The  English  fleet  was  divided  into  two  squadrons 
one  under  Lord  Henry  Seymour,  of  sixteen  ships,  ap- 
pointed to  watch  the  narrow  seas,  and  prevent  communi- 
cation between  the  Armada  and  the  Duke  of  Parma,  then 
commanding  in  Flanders  ;  the  other  stationed  on  the  west- 
ern coast,  to  meet  their  formidable  enemy,  upon  his  first 
approach  to  the  British  shore,  composed  of  vessels  of  all 
sizes  and  descriptions,  in  number  from  eighty-five  to  one 
hundred.  Lord  Charles  Howard,  High  Admiral  of  Eng- 
land, commanded  in  chief;  Drake,  a  name  of  fear  to  the 
Spaniard,  was  Vice-admiral ;  and,  among  many  lords 
and  gentlemen,  who  held  subordinate  commands,  the  well- 
known  seamen,  Hawkins  and  Frobisher,  filled  worthy 
place  and  trust.  The  trainbands,  or  militia,  of  the  mari- 
time counties,  being  summoned  to  be  ready  for  service, 
on  their  own  coasts,  at  the  earliest  warning,  two  strong 
armies  were  collected  from  the  interior,  one  of  two  thou- 
sand horse  and  thirty-four  thousand  foot,  for  the  defence 
of  the  Queen's  person,  and  as  a  disposable  force  ;  the 
other  was  encamped  at  Tilbury  ;  and  the  opposite  town 
of  Gravesend  being  fortified,  it  was  proposed  to  connect 
the  two  banks,  and  shut  up  the  river  by  a  bridge  of  boats. 

*  The  passages,  not  within  the  quotation  marks,  are  the  additions 
of  the  Author  of  '  Historical  Parallels,'  already  several  times  men 
tioned 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE   INVINCIBLE  ARMADA.     315 

"It  was  a  pleasant  sight,  to  behold  the  soldiers,  as 
they  marched  towards  Tilbury,  their  cheerfull  counte- 
nances, courageous  words  and  gestures,  dauncing  and 
leaping,  wheresoever  they  came  ;  and  in  the  campe,  their 
most  felicity  was  hope  of  fight  with  the  enemy,  where  oft- 
times  divers  rumours  ran  of  their  foes  approach,  and  that 
present  battell  would  bee  given  them  ;  then  were  they  as 
joyfull  at  such  newes,  as  if  lusty  giants  were  to  run  a 
race  ;  in  this  campe,  were  many  old  soldiers  and  right 
brave  commanders,  who,  although  their  greatest  force  did 
never  exceede  the  number  of  three  thousand  horse  and 
fifteen  thousand  foot,  yet  there  were  ready,  in  all  places, 
many  thousands  more,  to  backe  and  second  them,  and  it 
was  found  good  policy  not  on  the  sudden  to  keepe  too 
great  an  army  in  one  place." 

<c  The  Queen,  now  advanced  in  years," — these  are 
the  words  of  Mackintosh, — u  but  unworn  by  the  agita- 
tions of  a  long  reign,  displayed  the  chivalrous  resolution 
of  youth  and  manhood  ;  and,  by  displaying,  inspired  it. 
She  visited  the  troops,  rode  on  horseback  between  the 
lines,  and  addressed  to  the  army  at  Tilbury  one  of  the 
most  stirring  specimens  in  existence,  of  the  rhetoric  of 
the  camp. 

u  c  My  loving  people  !  We  have  been  persuaded,  by 
some  that  are  careful  of  our  safety,  to  take  heed  how  we 
commit  ourselves  to  armed  multitudes,  for  fear  of  treach- 
ery ;  but  I  assure  you,  I  do  not  desire  to  live  to  distrust 
my  faithful  and  loving  people.  Let  tyrants  fear  ;  I  have 
always  so  behaved  myself,  that,  under  God,  I  have  placed 
my  chiefest  strength  and  safeguard  in  the  loyal  hearts  and 
good  will  of  my  subjects  ;  and  therefore  I  am  come 
amongst  you,  as  you  see,  at  this  time,  not  for  my  recre- 
ation and  disport,  but  being  resolved,  in  the  midst  and 
heat  of  the  battle,  to  live  or  die  amongst  you  all,  to  lay 
down,  for  my  God,  and  for  my  kingdoms,  and  for  my 
people,  my  honor  and  my  blood,  even  in  the  dust.  I 
know  I  have  the  body  but  of  a  weak  and  feeble  woman  ; 
but  I  have  the  heart  and  stomach  of  a  king,  and  of  a  king 
of  England,  too  ;  and  think  foul  scorn  that  Parma,  or 
Spain,  or  any  prince  of  Europe,  should  dare  to  invade 


GREAT   EVENTS. 

the  borders  of  my  realm  ;  to  which,  rather  than  any  dis- 
honor shall  grow  by  me,  I  myself  will  take  up  arms  ;  I 
myself  will  be  your  general,  judge,  and  rewarder  of  every 
one  of  your  virtues  in  the  field.  I  know,  already,  for 
your  forwardness  you  have  deserved  rewards  and  crowns  ; 
and  we  do  assure  you,  on  the  word  of  a  prince,  they 
shall  be  duly  paid  you.  In  the  mean  time,  my  lieuten- 
ant-general shall  be  in  my  stead,  than  whom  never  prince 
commanded  a  more  noble  or  worthy  subject ;  not  doubt- 
ing, but,  by  your  obedience  to  my  general,  by  your  con- 
cord in  the  camp,  and  your  valor  in  the  field,  we  shall 
shortly  have  a  famous  victory  over  those  enemies  of  my 
God,  of  my  kingdoms,  and  of  my  people.'  " — We  now 
continue  with  the  extract  from  Stowe. 

"  Thus  England  being  in  all  points  furnished  and  in 
good  readiness  for  their  own  defence,  I  will  speake  a 
word  or  two  concerning  the  Hollanders,  then  leave  them 
awhile,  and  report  of  their  adversaries  estate  and  prepa- 
ration. ^ 

"  The  Hollanders  came  in  roundly,  with  threescore 
sayle,  brave  shippes  of  war,  fierce  and  full  of  spleene,  not 
so  much  for  Englands  ayd,.as  in  just  occasion  of  their  own 
defence,  knowing  the  originall  and  ground  of  this  hostility 
to  proceed  from  themselves,  with  thirty  yeeres  continued 
sharpe  warre.  These  men,  foreseeing  the  greatnesse  of 
the  danger  that  might  ensue,  if  the  Spaniards  should 
chance  to  winne  the  day,  and  get  the  mastery  over  them, 
in  due  regard  whereof  their  manly  courage  was  inferior  to 
none. 

"  The  King  of  Spaine,  after  three  yeeres  deliberate 
advice,  was  three  yeeres  preparing  this  twofold  army  in 
Spain,  whereof  he  made  Alphonso  Perez,  Duke  of  Me- 
dina Sidonia,  chiefe  generall,  and  Don  Martino  Recaldo, 
of  Cantabria,  vice-admirall :  which  army,  by  the  ayde  of 
the  clergy,  the  princes  of  Italy,  as  well  friends  as  froda- 
ries,  the  seven  kinirdmne^  in  Spain,  the  entire  state  of 
Portugall,  top- 1 her  with  the  hrlp  of  mariners,  pylots,  mu- 
niton,  tackling,  and  virtual!,  from  the  northwest  parts  of 
Europe,  was  now  fully  furnished,  ahngj  the  middle  of 
May,  riding  at  anchor  in  the  river  Ta^us,  neare  Lisbon, 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE   INVINCIBLE   ARMADA.     317 

consisting  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  vessels  for 
warre,  namely,  carricks,  galleons,  argoseys,  and  four  gal- 
liasses,  two  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty-five  pieces  of 
great  ordinance,  twelve  thousand  mariners,  and  twenty- 
thousand  land-soldiers,  besides  voluntaries,  vitlers,  hospi- 
tals, and  shippes  of  artificers  to  attend  them.  When  the 
King  beheld  this  mighty  host,  observing  well  their  match- 
less strength,  and  plenteous  provision,  for  sea  and  land, 
as  well  for  others  as  themselves,  to  wit,  oyle,  wine,  rice, 
salt,  biskit,  horses,  mules,  carts,  carriages,  powder,  shot, 
saddles,  apparell,  pickaxes,  and  shovels,  hee  sayd,  it 
might  well  be  called  the  Invincible  Army.  It  was  ever 
meant  this  army  should  have  been  at.  the  Groyne*  before 
this  time,  to  have  taken  the  full  advantage  of  the  yeere, 
for  so  tlje  Dukes  of  Guise  and  Parma  did  expect,  whose 
preparations,  on  all  points,  were  in  a  better  readinesse,  at 
the  beginning  of  June,  according  to  the  Kings  appoint- 
ment, than  they  were  afterward  ;  for,  seeing  the  Sommer 
half  spent,  they  doubted  whether  the  King  would  send  his 
army  this  yeere,  or  no ;  but  the  King  could  not  help  it, 
for  that  his  ships  were  furnished  in  divers  ports,  and 
through  contrary  winds  could  not  be  united  until  this  pres- 
ent, so  as  they  were  constrained  to  anchor  at  Lisbon, 
where  they  should  have  hoysed  sail  at  the  Groyne ;  to 
wit,  about  the  beginning  of  June." 

The  terms  of  naval  architecture  just  used  require  some 
explanation.  Carracks,  argosies,  and  galleons,  were 
names  for  the  largest  species  of  sailing  vessels  in  use. 
Some  idea  of  their  size  may  be  formed,  from  the  dimen- 
sions of  a  Portuguese  vessel,  captured  in  1592.  Her 
burden  was  sixteen  hundred  tons ;  she  carried  thirty-two 
pieces  of  brass  ordnance,  and  between  six  and  seven  hun- 
dred passengers  ;  and  was  built  with  decks,  seven  stories 
high.  She  is  said  to  have  been  in  length,  from  the  fig- 
ure-head, to  the  stern,  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  feet ;  in 
breadth  near  forty-seven.  Carrack  was  a  name  given,  by 
the  Portuguese,  to  the  vessels  built  i^r  the  Brazil  and 
East-Indian  trade  :  their  capacity  was  chiefly  in  their 

*  Corunna. 

27* 


318 


GREAT   EVENTS. 


depth.  Galleasses  were  the  largest  vessels  impelled  by 
oars,  and  differed  from  galleys  only  in  their  superior  size, 
and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  artillery. 

A  minute  detail  of  the  number  and  force  of  the  Span- 
ish fleet  is  given  in  Charnock's  History  of  Marine  Archi- 
tecture. It  appears,  that  the  vessels  classed  as  galleons, 
mounted  from  fifty  to  twenty,  or  even  so  few  as  fifteen, 
cannon,  and  the  largest  of  them  were  from  one  thousand 
to  sixteen  hundred  tons  burden.  The  following  sum- 
mary will  convey  some  notion  of  the  size  and  equipment 
of  the  vessels  in  use,  and  show  the  immense  superiority  of 
the  Spanish  over  the  English  force. 

Tonnage. 

7,739  Portuguese 
squadron 

5,861  Biscayan    . 

8,054  Castilian    . 

8,692  Andalusian 

7,192  Guypuiscoan 

8,632  Italian 
10,860  Medina 

2,090  Mendoza* 


No.  of 

Smaller 

Salleons. 

Vessels. 

Guns. 

10 

2 

389 

10 

4 

302 

15 

2 

474 

10 

1 

315 

11 

4 

296 

10 

0 

319 

0 

24 

466 

0 

25 

204 

59,120 


66       62     2,765 


Four   Neapolitan   Galleasses,  ) 
mounting  .   .    50  guns  each  $ 
Four  Portuguese,  50    "      " 


200 
200 

400 
2,765 


Sailors. 

Soldiers. 

1,242 

3,086 

906 

2,117 

1,793 

2,924 

776 

2,365 

608 

2,120 

844 

2,792 

930 

3,570 

746 

1,481 

7,845 

20,455 

Slaves. 

477 

744  1,200 

424 

440      888 

901 

1,184  2,088 

7,845 

20,455 

3,165         8,746       21,639 

The  English  force  is  less  minutely  given  :  numerically, 
it  was  superior  to  the  Spanish,  for  it  consisted  of  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-five  vessels,  besides  others  classed  as 
victuallers  ;  but  the  inferiority  of  the  several  ships,  in 
size  and  force,  will  appear  from  a  comparison  of  their 
tonnage  and  the  number  of  their  crews.  The  largest  of 
die  royal  navy  was  of  eleven  hundred  tons  :  the  collective 
burden  of/ the  fleet  amounted  only  to  twenty-nine  thousand 
•even  hundred  and  forty-four  tons,  barely  more  than  half 


*This  is  the  classification  of  tlio  provinces,  as  given  by  Charnock. 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  INVINCIBLE  ARMADA.     319 

that  of  the  Spanish  navy,  and  their  crews  consisted  of 
fourteen  thousand  five  hundred  and  one  men,  opposed  to 
a  numerical  force  more  than  double  their  number.  The 
number  of  guns,  and  weight  of  metal,  of  the  English  fleet, 
we  have  not  been  able  to  obtain.  In  this  respect,  the  dis- 
proportion was  probably  even  greater.  The  reader  will 
observe,  that  we  have  not  taken  into  account,  the  Dutch 
squadron,  which  did  good  service  in  blocking  up,  in  their 
harbors,  the  forces  collected  by  the  Duke  of  Parma,  but 
never  were  opposed  to  the  Spanish  fleet. 

The  Armada,  in  its  passage  from  Lisbon  to  the  Groyne, 
was  considerably  injured,  by  stress  of  weather,  which  still 
further  delayed  it ;  and,  June  and  July  being  almost  spent, 
and  no  appearance  of  the  enemy,  it  began  to  be  thought, 
that,  for  that  year,  at  least,  the  Spaniards  would  not 
come.  Many  of  the  volunteers,  therefore,  being  indiffer- 
ently provided  for  keeping  the  sea,  dispersed  themselves 
into  different  harbors,  and  the  Queen,  economical,  even 
to  parsimony,  countenanced  this  imprudence  by  recalling 
from  the  High-Admiral  four  of  her  great  ships.  Mean- 
while, the  Duke  of  Parma  had  assembled,  in  Flanders, 
thirty  thousand  foot  and  five  thousand  horse,  and  collect- 
ed, in  his  ports,  three  hundred  and  forty  flat-bottomed  ves- 
sels, great  and  small,  to  land  his  men  readily  upon  an 
open  strand,  with  store  of  all  necessaries  to  make  good 
his  descent,  even  in  the  face  of  an  enemy.  The  plan  of 
the  campaign  was  this  :  the  Duke  of  Medina  was  order- 
ed to  steer  direct  to  Flanders,  place  himself  under  the 
command  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  who,  under  convoy  of 
the  Armada,  should  disembark  in  Kent  or  Essex,  as  near 
to  London  or  to  the  camp  as  he  could.  It  was  also 
meant,  that  the  Duke  of  Guise  should  first  have  landed 
in  the  west,  under  protection  of  the  Spanish  navy,  as  it 
passed  along,  to  effect  a  diversion  in  favor  of  the  real  at- 
tack ;  while,  after  the  arrival  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  the 
fleet,  passing  northward,  was  appointed  to  land  in  York- 
shire twelve  thousand  men. 

"  The  Spanish  navy  having  refreshed  themselves  at 
Groyne,  after  twenty-eight  days  rest,  set  forward,  for 
England,  about  the  eleventh  of  July,  in  the  greatest 


320  GREAT   EVENTS 

porape  that  eye  ever  beheld,  matchlesse  in  state,  com 
maunding  their  passage  wheresoever  they  came,  exceed- 
ding  far  the  force  of  those  two  thousand  warlike  sayle  of 
great  Symeramis,*  or  the  like  number  at  commaund  of 
the  Egyptian  Cleopatra,  or  those  twelve  hundred  well- 
prepared  ships,  raised  by  Charles  of  Fraunce,  with  like 
full  purpose  of  invasion,  for  revenge  upon  King  Richard 
the  Second,  for  dammage  done  by  his  graundsire,  Ed- 
ward the  Third,  in  his  French  conquest ;  but  this  proud 
navy  hath  more  skilfull  guides,  and,  in  the  overweening 
of  her  strength,  sets  forward  boldly  to  perform  her  charge, 
(though  in  stealing  wise,)  as  if  necessity  hadde  constrain- 
ed them  to  take  advantage  of  home-bred  traytors,  or  am- 
bitious rebels,  risen  against  their  state,  and  not  like  soul- 
diers,  sent  in  cause  of  just  hostilitie,  to  encounter  with  an 
honourable  enemy,  without  due  summons,  or  defiance 
unto  armes,  according  to  the  law  of  nations. 

u  The  nineteenth  of  July,  the  English  Admirall,  upon 
direct  knowledge  of  the  enemies  approach,  sends  speedy 
summons  unto  all  the  English  fleet,  who  still  retained 
their  former  courage.  The  Spaniards,  by  this  time, 
were  entered  the  mouth  of  the  narrow  seas,  whose  num- 
ber, state,  and  strength,  being  well  observed  by  the  Lord 
Admirall,  and  rightly  considered,  that  it  was  now  no  time 
to  dally  or  flatter  in  so  imminent  daunger,  in  depth  of  hu- 
mane judgement,  and  discharge  of  duty  to  his  Prince  and 
country,  instantly  addressed  his  letters,  by  his  brother-in- 
law,  Sir  Edward  Hobby,  unto  her  Majesty,  signifying 
the  great  difference  in  power  betwixt  the  English  and  the 
Spaniard,  and  therefore  seeing  the  English  navall  forces 
far  inferior  to  the  Spanish  army,  advised  the  Queenc  to 
send  more  ayde  to  the  sea,  and  to  make  ready  the  chiefe 
strength  of  her  land  forces  :  at  which  newes,  the  Queene 
forthwith  commands  more  ships  to  the  sea,  whereupon, 

*  This  fleet  of  Semiramis  is  probably  about  as  real  as  Shakspcare's 
sea coast  of  Bohi-mia.  What  tho  amount  of  Cleopatra's  fleet  miirht 
be,  we  do  not  know  ;  but  at  Actium,  six-  had  only  sixty  ships.  In 
the  last  example,  Stowe  is  within  hound*.  Froissart  says,  that 
one  thousand  two  hundred  and  eighty-seven  ships  were  prepared  on 
this  occasion.  What  sort  of  cock-boats  they  were  is  another  que« 
tion. 


DESTRUCTION   OF  THE   INVINCIBLE  ARMADA.    321 

yet  in  voluntary  manner,  the  Earles  of  Oxford,  Northum 
berland,  and  Cumberland,  Sir  Thomas  Cecill,  Sir  Rob- 
ert Cecill,  Sir  Walter  Rawleigh,  Master  Thomas  Ger- 
rard,  Master  Arthur  Gorge,  Sir  Thomas  Vavasor,  and 
many  other  honourable  personages,  were  suddenly  em- 
barked, committing  themselves  unto  the  presant  chaunce 
of  warre. 

"  Gentlemen  and  yeomen  of  sundry  shires,  bordering 
on  the  sea,  knowing  many  of  the  English  shippes  to  bee 
very  weakly  furnished  with  victuall  and  munition,  out  of 
their  singular  zeale  and  loyalty,  sent  cheerefully  such  pro- 
vision as  they  either  could  make,  or  was  provided  for 
their  families  ;  yea,  such  was  the  integrity  of  the  Eng- 
lish, as  the  recusants  offered  their  service,  and  were  de- 
sirous to  take  their  fortune  with  the  common  souldiers. 

"  The  twenty-first  of  July,  the  Spaniards  came  as 
high  as  Plimmouth,  where  divers  English  shippes  lay  fast 
in  harbor,  the  rest  gave  charge  upon  the  enemie  ;  the 
Armado  then  daraines  *  itselfe  into  the  fashion  of  the 
crescent  moone  ;  each  side  prepares  themselves  speedily 
to  fight  with  braves  and  bravadoes,  their  shrill  sounding 
trumpets,  and  their  ratling  drums,  lent  mutuall  courage  unto 
both  batalions,  and  loud  thundring  canons  send  swift  mes- 
sengers of  death  :  both  armies  strive  to  get  advantage  of 
the  wind,  but  the  English,  beeing  much  more  quick  and 
yare,  winne  their  desire,  and  Englands  Admirall,  in  per- 
son, gave  the  onset,  and  for  two  houres  space  maintained 
a  valiant  fight,  untill  night  drew  on,  and,  wanting  forty  of 
the  English  fleete,  which,  as  yet,  could  not  by  any  meanes 
come  unto  their  ayde,  they  tackt  about. 

u  The  next  day,   the  English  navy  beeing   well  en- 
creased,  gave  charge  and  chase  upon  the  enemie,  squad 
ron  after  squadron,  seconding  each  other  like  swift  horse 
men,  that  could  nimbly  come  andgoe,  and  fetch  the  wind 
for  most  advantage.     Now  begins  the  furious  fight,  on 
either  part,  and  manly  soldiers  firmly  keepe  their  stand 
upon  the  starboord  and  larboord  side,   and,  as  occasion 
serves,  some  cry,  keepe  aloofe  ;  others,  roome,  ho  !  if  the 
seas  were  calme,  it  serves  the  English  well  to  charge  upoy 
*  Draws  up  for  battle. 


322  GREAT   EVENTS. 

the  greatest  bul  \varke  of  the  Spanish  fleete  ;  and  then  their 
galliasses,  as  sergeants  of  the  band,  would  issue  foorth, 
sometimes  to  succour  their  distressed  friends,  and  other- 
whiles  with  purpose  to  surprise  such  English  as  they  saw 
becalmed,  whose  kindnesse  oft  the  English  with  their 
broadsides  would  requite,  sending  their  dole  until  the 
Spaniards  blood  ran  out  at  scupper-hole  ;  but  if  the  wind 
grew  bigge,  and  billowes  played  aloft,  then  the  Spaniards, 
with  their  lofty  towers,  make  full  account  to  stem  the 
English  comming  in  their  way  :  sometimes,  the  English, 
in  their  eager  fight,  fell  foule  upon  the  daunger  of  their 
ennemies,  and  so  continued  from  the  evening  unto  the 
breake  of  day  :  the  Lord  High  Admirall  himselfe  was 
one  whole  night  within  the  maine  battell  of  the  Spanish 
army  :  both  navies  showed  great  valour,  in  their  daily 
fight,  which  commonly  continued  within  the  reach  of  mus- 
ket-shot, and  many  times  at  push  of  pike,  without  inter- 
mission, save  only  when,  for  want  of  wind,  they  were 
restrained  :  the  English  chiefetaines  ever  sought  to  single 
out  the  great  commaunders  of  the  Spanish  hoste,  whose 
loftie  castles  held  great  scorne  of  their  encounter  :  but 
whilest  both  armies  were  thus  conjoyned,  Don  Pedro  de 
Valdez,  a  chiefe  cornmaunder  of  the  army,  fell  fovvle  up- 
on one  of  his  fellowes,  and  brake  his  foremast,  who,  being 
maimed  and  left  behind,  lay,  like  a  stiffe  elephant,  in  the 
open  field,  beset  with  eager  hounds,  who,  being  commaund- 
ed  to  yeelde,  sayd,  he  would  yeelde  to  none  but  his  equal, 
and  asked  in  whose  squadron  hee  was  fallen  ;  they  an- 
swered into  Drakes  squadron  ;  then  he  sayd,  fetch  him, 
for  I  will  yeelde  to  none  but  to  a  commaunder  like  myself. 
Drake,  being  returned  from  chasing  certain  Easterlings, 
Don  Pedro  beganne  to  articulate  ;  but  Drake  perempto- 
rily told  him,  it  was  now  no  time  to  stand  upon  tearmes  of 
composition,  whereupon  he  yeelded  ;  having  caused  all 
their  jewels,  plate,  money,  apparell,  with  whatever  else 
thc'ir  present  state  could  any  way  afford,  to  be  layed  open, 
to  prevent  the  fury  of  tin-  Kn^lisii,  when  they  came 
aboord. 

ct  After  that,  another  galleon,  by  negligence  was  set 
on  fire,  and  therewith  consumed  to  the  lower  decke,  un- 


DESTRUCTION  OP  THE   INVINCIBLE  ARMADA.     323 

der  which  lay  store  of  gunpowder,  never  touched.  The 
lord  Thomas  Howard,  pittying  their  extream  misery, 
but  not  being  able  to  stay  on  boord,  through  extreamity 
of  stench,  caused  the  remainder  of  those  scorched  men 
to  be  set  on  shore. 

"  The  Spanish  navie,  for  sixe  dayes  space,  having 
endured  many  sharpe  fights  and  fierce  assaults,  coasting 
and  discoasting  from  England  to  the  coast  of  Fraunce, 
and  from  thence  to  England,  and  then  to  Fraunce  again, 
the  seaven  and  twentieth  of  July,  towards  night,  they 
cast  anchor  nigh  to  Callis  Roade  ;  the  English  likewise 
rid  at  anchor  very  neere  unto  them. 

"  Now  rides  the  Armada  at  her  wished  post,  unto 
whom  the  Duke  of  Parma  sends  present  word,  that, 
within  three  days,  their  forces  should  conjoyne,  and  with 
first  advantage  of  wind  and  tyde,  transport  their  armies 
to  the  English  coast ;  in  meane  space  they  would  person- 
ally meet,  and  then  determine  betweene  themselves  what 
was  further  to  be  done. 

"  The  Flemings,  Walloons,  and  the  French,  came 
thicke  and  threefolde  to  behold  the  fleete,  admiring  the 
exceeding  greatnesse  of  their  shippes,  and  warlike  order  ; 
the  greatest  kept  the  outside  next  the  enemie,  like  strong 
castles,  fearing  no  assault,  the  lesser  placed  in  the  mid- 
dle ward  :  fresh  victuals  straight  were  brought  aboord, 
captains  and  cavaliers,  for  their  money,  might  have  what 
they  would,  who  gave  the  French  so  liberally,  as  within 
twelve  houres  an  egge  was  worth  sixe  pence,  besides 
thanks. 

u  Whilest  this  lusty  navie,  like  a  demi-conqueror,  ryd 
thus  at  anchor,  the  Spanish  faction,  in  sundry  nations, 
had  divulged  that  England  was  subdued,  the  Queene  ta- 
ken and  sent  prisoner  over  the  Alpes  to  Rome,  where, 
barefoote,  shee  should  make  her  humble  reconciliation,  &c. 

"In  Paris,  Don  Barnardino  de  Mendoza,  ambassador 
from  Spaine,  entred  into  our  lady  church,  (Notre  Dame,) 
advancing  his  rapier  in  his  right  hand,  and,  with  a  loud 
voyce,  cryed,  '  Victorie,  Victorie,'  and  it  was  forthwith 
bruited  that  England  was  vanquished.  But  the  next  day, 
when  trueth  was  known  of  the  Armadoes  overthrow. 


324  GREAT  EVENTS. 

certain  pages  of  adverse  faction  unto  Spain,  in  bitter 
scoffing  manner,  humbly  prayed  his  lordships  letters 
unto  the  Duke  of  Parma,  in  favor  of  their  good  fortune, 
to  bestow  on  them  some  odde  wast  cast  townes  or  villa- 
ges, as  London,  Canterbury,  or  York,  or  so,  whereat 
Mendoza,  being  much  dismayed,  obscured  himself,  not 
daring  to  show  his  face. 

"  France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  were  very  doubtful  of 
the  English  state,  and  in  those  places  the  English  mer 
chants  well  perceived  their  double  eye,  one  while  smyl 
ing  on  Spaines  behalf,  and  then  upon  the  English  casting 
a  fleering  looke. 

"  The  Queenes  navy  having  well  observed  the  mar- 
tiall  order  and  invincible  strength  of  the  Spaniards,  and 
that  it  was  not  possible  to  remove  them  by  force  of  fight, 
and  therewithal  considered  the  present  purpose  of  the 
Duke  of  Parma,  and  their  owne  imminent  daunger,  omit- 
ted no  time,  but  according  to  the  present  necessity,  the 
Generall,  with  his  councell  of  warre,  concluded  to  make 
their  first  strategem  by  fire,  and  thereupon,  the  twenty- 
eighth  of  July,  they  emptied  eight  of  their  basest  barkes, 
and  put  therein  much  combustible  matter,  which,  in  the 
evening,  were  subtilly  set  on  fire,  and  with  advantage 
both  of  wind  and  tyde,  guided  within  the  reach  of  canon 
shotte,  before  the  Spaniards  could  discern  the  same  ;  and 
then,  the  flame  grew  fierce,  with  sudden  terror  to  the 
enemie,  who  thought  these  floates  to  have  been  like  the 
sundry  workes  of  wildfire  lately  made  to  break  the  bridge 
at  Antwerpe,  in  which  feare,  they  all  amazed,  \viili 
shrikes  and  loud  outcries,  to  the  great  astonishment  of 
the  neere  inhabitants,  crying,  '  The  fire  of  Antwerpe,  the 
fire  of  Antwerpe  ;'  some  cut  cables,  others  let  the  haw- 
sers slippe,  and  happiest  they  who  could  first  bee  gone, 
though  few  could  telle  what  course  to  take. 

"  The  first  whereof,  that  nm  .  •  ;i<l,  was  a  galliasse, 
hard  by  Callis  walls,  where  the  Knirlish  freely  took  o  ih<? 
common  spoyle,  until  they  began  to  take  the  ordinance 
and  to  fire  the  shippe,  uhcrc.it  the  governor  being  sore 
displeased,  knowing  the  royalty  thereof  to  be  appropriate 
to  himselfe,  discharged  his  canons  from  the  citadel,  and 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE   INVINCIBLE  ARMADA.     325 

drove  the  English  from  their  benefite.  The  next  was  a 
galleon,  which  ranne  ashoore  in  Flanders.  Divers  oth- 
ers fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Hollanders.  The  rest  en- 
deavored, by  all  meanes  possible,  to  cast  anchor  before 
Gravelyn  or  Dunkerke,  hoping  still  to  have  supply  from 
Parma. 

"  But  the  English  forces  being  now  wholly  united, 
prevented  their  enemies  conjoyning  together,  and  follow- 
ed their  fortunes  to  the  uttermost,  continuing  four  dayes 
fight  in  more  deadly  manner  than  at  any  time  before,  and, 
having  incessant  cause  of  fresh  encouragement,  chased 
the  Spaniards,  from  place  to  place,  until  they  hadde  driv- 
en them  into  a  desperate  estate  ;  so  as  of  necessity,  as 
well  for  that  the  wind  was  westerly,  as  that  their  enemies 
increased,  and  their  own  provision  of  sayles,  anchors,  and 
cables  greatly  wasted,  resolved  to  shape  their  course  by 
the  Orcades  and  the  north  of  Ireland.  In  whose  pursuit, 
if  the  English  had  been  but  meanly  furnished  with  victuall 
and  munition,  they  would  have  brought  them  all  unto 
their  mercy  ;  but  when  they  saw  them  past  the  Orcades 
and  the  Scottish  seas,  they  made  retreat.  And,  if  the 
Spaniards  had  but  two  days  longer  continued  fight,  the 
English  must  have  made  a  retreat,  for  want  of  shot 
and  powder,  and  left  the  Spaniards  to  their  most  advan- 
tage. 

"  About  the  end  of  September,  the  Duke  of  Medina 
arrived  in  Spaine,  being  as  much  discountenanced  at 
court,  as  discouraged  in  his  journey  ;  and,  of  all  his 
royall  navy  which  he  carried  foorth,  there  returned  only 
threescore  sayle,  sore  distressed  ;  the  rest  whereof,  some 
were  taken  and  spoyled  by  the  English,  in  the  narrow 
seas,  and  some  taken  by  the  Hollanders,  and  some  made 
a  fayre  escape  by  landing  in  Scotland  :  but  the  most  per- 
ished upon  the  Irish  coast,  and  slaine  by  Gallowglasses, 
whose  generall  losse  was  much  lamented  through  Spaine, 
for  that  every  noted  family  had  lost  a  kinsman  or  a  neere 
ally. 

"  Shippes  under  the  command  of  the  Lord  High  Ad- 
mirall  of  England,  this  yeere,  1588  : 

28  G.  E. 


326  GREAT   EVENTS. 

Of  shippes  Royal, .17 

Attended  by  other  warlike  ships, 12 

And  of  lusty  pinnaces, 6 

From  London  there  were  sent,  of  brave,  warlike  ships,  .  16 

And  of  pinnaces, 4 

From  Bristow  there  were  sent,  of  serviceable  ships,  .  .  3 

And  one  pinnace, 1 

From  Barstaple  there  were  sent,  in  this  expedition,  of  ships,  3 
From  Excester  there  were  sent,  of  ships, 2 

And  one  pinnace, 1 

From  Plimmouth  there  were  sent,  of  ships  well  appointed,  7 

And  one  flye  boat, 1 

"  There  was  sent  a  pinnace  of  the  Lord  Admiralls  ; 
also,  a  pinnace  of  the  Lord  Sheffields,  and  a  pinnace  of 
Sir  William  Winters.* 

"  The  merchant  adventurers  of  England  set  foorth, 
at  their  own  proper  charges,  of  lusty  ships, — 10. 

"  Ships  under  the  Lord  Henry  Seymour,  in  the  narrow 
seas  : — Of  ships  royall,  accompanied  with  other  very  war- 
like ships,  well  appointed,  being  in  number, — 16. 

cc  Besides  all  these,  there  were  many  other  barkes, 
ships,  and  pinnaces,  sent  out  of  the  north  parts  and  west 
parts,  as  also  particularly  by  divers  persons,  as  by  the 
Lord  Admirall,  by  divers  other  lordes,  knights,  and  gen- 
tlemen, and  some  others  his  followers,  and  by  sundry 
other  noble  and  vallerous  gentlemen  and  gallant  mar- 
chants,  whereof  I  could  never  attaine  the  certaine  knowl- 
edge, though  I  greatly  sought  it." 

The  partisans  of  the  two  contending  nations  differ 
widely,  as  is  to  be  expected,  in  their  estimates  of  the  loss 
sustained.  The  victors  said,  that  eighty  vessels  and 
eighteen  thousand  men  had  perished  :  Strada  rates  it  at 
thirty-two  captured  and  wrecked,  and  ten  thousand  men  : 
but  he  acknowledges  that  the  result  of  the  expedition 
filled  all  Spain  with  mourning. 

*  A  pinnace  is  a  small  vessel  navigated  with  oars  and  tailf. 


THE   SIEGE   OF  ZARAGOZA.  327 


THE  SIEGE  OF  ZARAGOZA,  IN  1808. 

BY  SOUTHEY   AND  NAPIER. 

IN  general,  it  may  be  said,  that  modern  sieges  have  lost 
much  of  their  interest,  except  for  the  scientific  soldier  ; 
because  the  art  of  the  engineer  has  reduced  them,  placing 
external  relief  out  of  consideration,  almost  to  certainty. 
Still,  there  have  been  sieges,  in  modern  times,  in  which 
was  displayed  all  the  heroic  perseverance  that  has  distin- 
guished the  defenders  of  fortified  places,  at  any  previous 
period.*  We  find  a  number  of  them  in  the  history  of  the 
war,  termed  the  Peninsular  War,  which  was  carried  on  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
between  the  English,  Spaniards,  and  Portuguese,  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  French,  on  the  other.  In  most  of  them, 
we  find  remarkable  instances,  both  of  military  resolution 
and  of  popular  energy  ;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  make  a  selec- 
tion of  the  most  interesting  of  them.  For  several  reasons, 
however,  the  Siege  of  Zaragoza|  has  been  selected,  and  is 
here  given. 

The  two  authors,  from  whose  works  the  following  ac- 
counts are  taken,  are  both  living  in  England.  Colonel 
Napier  shared  in  the  perils  of  the  war  which  he  has  de- 
scribed ;  and  Mr.  Southey  is  so  renowned  an  author,  that 
most  readers  are,  no  doubt,  in  possession  of  more  informa- 
tion respecting  him,  than  could  be  given  here. 

"  Zaragoza  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ebro. 
Before  its  first  siege,  in  1808,  it  contained  fifty  thousand 
inhabitants.  It  possessed  no  regular  defences,  and  few 
guns,  fit  for  service,  but  was  surrounded  by  a  low  brick 

*  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1840,  a  violent  attack,  made  by 
several  thousand  Arabs,  upon  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  French 
soldiers,  at  a  place  called  Mazagran,  in  Algiria,  was  sustained  for  sev- 
eral days,  with  a  degree  of  fortitude,  which  has  been  acknowledged 
in  a  signal  and  lasting  manner,  both  by  the  King  of  the  French,  and 
the  French  Chambers. 

t  Zaragoza  is  a  contraction  and  corruption  of  the  Latin  Caesarea 
Augusta.  By  another  corruption,  the  name  of  Syracuse  was  formerly 
changed  into  Zaragoza,  so  that  we  find  it  spoken  of  as  "  the  Sicilian 
Saragossa." 


328  GREAT   EVENTS. 

wall.  These  deficiencies  were  in  some  degree  remedied, 
by  the  nature  of  its  buildings,  which  were  well  calculated 
for  the  internal  warfare  subsequently  carried  on,  the  houses 
being  mostly  built  of  brick  and  stone,  and  vaulted,  so  as 
to  be  almost  incombustible.  The  city  was  also  full  of 
churches  and  convents,  strongly  built,  and  surrounded  by 
high,  thick  walls.  A  broad  street,  called  the  Cosso,  bent 
almost  into  a  semicircle,  concentric  with  the  wall,  and  ter- 
minated, at  each  end,  by  the  Ebro,  divided  the  city  into  an 
outer  and  an  inner  part.  It  occupied  the  ground  on  which 
the  Moorish  walls  had  formerly  stood,  before  the  city  at- 
tained its  present  size.  This  street  was  the  scene  of  that 
heroic  resistance,  in  1808,  which  kept  the  French  at  bay, 
after  the  walls  and  one  half  of  the  place  had  fallen  into  their 
hands.  On  the  third  of  August,  rather  more  than  a  month 
after  the  commencement  of  the  siege,  the  convent  of  St. 
Engracia,  which  formed  part  of  the  wall,  was  breached  ; 
and,  on  the  fourth,  it  was  stormed,  and  the  victorious 
troops  carried  all  before  them,  as  far  as  the  Cosso,  and, 
before  night,  were  in  possession  of  one  half  of  the  city. 
The  French  General  now  considered  the  city  as  his  own, 
and  summoned  it  to  surrender,  in  a  note  containing  only 
these  words:  "Head-quarters,  St.  Engracia,  Capitula- 
tion." The  emphatic  reply  is  well  known,  and  will  be- 
come proverbial:  "Head-quarters,  Zaragoza,  War  to 
the  Knife." 

<c  THE  contest,  which  was  now  carried  on,  is  unexam- 
pled in  history.  One  side  of  the  Cosso,  a  street  about 
as  wide  as  Pall  Mall,  was  possessed  by  the  French,  and 
in  the  centre  of  it,  their  general,  Verdier,  gave  his  orders 
from  the  Franciscan  convent.  The  opposite  side  was 
maintained  by  the  Aragonese,  who  threw  up  batteries  at 
the  openings  of  the  cross  streets,  within  a  few  paces  of 
those  which  the  French  erected  against  them.  Tin; 
intervening  space  was  presently  heaped  with  dead,  either 
slain  upon  the  spot,  or  thrown  out  from  the  windows, 
Next  day,  the  ammunition  of  the  citizens  began  to  fail  : 
the  French  were  expected,  every  moment,  to  renew  their 
efforts  for  completing  the  conquest,  and  even  this  circum- 
stance occasioned  no  dismay,  nor  did  any  one  think  of 
capitulation.  One  cry  was  heard  from  the  people, 


THE   SIEGE   OF  ZARAGOZA.  329 

whenever  Palafox*  rode  amongst  them,  that,  if  powder 
failed,  they  were  ready  to  attack  the  enemy  with  their 
knives, — formidable  weapons,  in  the  hands  of  desperate 
men.  Just  before  the  day  closed,  Don  Francisco  Pala- 
fox,  the  general's  brother,  entered  the  city,  with  a  convoy 
of  arms  and  ammunition,  and  a  reenforcement  of  three 
thousand  men,  composed  of  Spanish  guards,  Swiss,  and 
volunteers  of  Aragon, — a  succor  as  little  expected  by 
the  Zaragozans,  as  it  had  been  provided  against  by  the 
enemy. 

"  The  war  was  now  continued,  from  street  to  street, 
from  house  to  house,  and  from  room  to  room  ;  pride 
and  indignation  having  wrought  up  the  French  to  a 
pitch  of  obstinate  fury,  little  inferior  to  the  devoted 
courage  of  the  patriots.  During  the  whole  siege,  no 
man  distinguished  himself  more  remarkably,  than  the 
curate  of  one  of  the  parishes  within  the  walls,  by  name, 
P.  Santiago  Suss.  He  was  always  to  be  seen  in  the 
streets  ;  sometimes,  fighting  with  the  most  determined 
bravery  ;  at  other  times,  administering  the  sacrament  to 
the  dying,  and  confirming,  with  the  authority  of  faith, 
that  hope,  which  gives  to  death,  under  such  circumstan- 
ces, the  joy,  the  exaltation,  the  triumph,  and  the  spirit, 
of  martyrdom.  Palafox  reposed  the  utmost  confidence 
in  the  brave  Priest,  and  selected  him  when  any  thing 
peculiarly  difficult  or  hazardous  was  to  be  done.  At 
the  head  of  forty  chosen  men,  he  succeeded  in  introduc- 
ing into  the  town  a  supply  of  powder,  so  essentially  nec- 
essary for  its  defence. 

"  This  most  obstinate  and  murderous  conflict  was 
continued,  for  eleven  successive  days  and  nights,  more 
indeed  by  night,  than  by  day  ;  for  it  was  almost  certain 
death  to  appear,  by  daylight,  within  reach  of  those  houses 
which  were  occupied  by  the  other  party.  But,  under 
cover  of  the  darkness,  the  combatants  frequently  dashed 
across  the  street,  to  attack  each  other's  batteries  ;  and 
the  battles,  which  began  there,  weie  often  carried  on 
into  the  houses  beyond,  where  they  fought  from  room 

*  The  General  of  the  Zaragozans.— I. 

28* 


330  GREAT  EVENTS. 

to  room,  and  from  floor  to  floor.  The  hostile  batteries 
were  so  near  each  other,  that  a  Spaniard,  in  one  place, 
made  way  under  cover  of  the  dead  bodies,  which  com- 
pletely filled  the  space  between  them,  and  fastened  a 
rope  to  one  of  the  French  cannons  ;  in  the  struggle 
which  ensued,  the  rope  broke,  and  the  Zaragozans  lost 
their  prize,  at  the  very  moment  when  they  thought  them- 
selves sure  of  it. 

"A  new  horror  was  added  to  the  dreadful  circum- 
stances of  war,  in  this  ever-memorable  siege.  In  gener- 
al engagements,  the  dead  are  left  upon  the  field  of  battle, 
and  the  survivors  removed  to  clear  ground  and  an  untaint- 
ed atmosphere  :  but  here,  in  Spain,  and  in  the  month  of 
August,  where  the  dead  lay,  the  struggle  was  still  carried 
on,  and  pestilence  was  dreaded,  from  the  enormous  ac- 
cumulation of  putrefying  bodies.  Nothing,  in  the  whole 
course  of  the  siege,  so  much  embarrassed  Palafox,  as 
this  evil.  The  only  remedy  was,  to  tie  ropes  to  the 
French  prisoners,  and  push  them  forward,  amid  the  dead 
and  dying,  to  remove  the  bodies,  and  bring  them  away 
for  interment.  Even  for  this  necessary  office  there  was 
no  truce,  and  it  would  have  been  certain  death  to  the 
Aragonese,  who  should  have  attempted  to  perform  it : 
but  the  prisoners  were,  in  general,  secured  by  the  pity 
of  their  own  soldiers,  and  in  this  manner  the  evil  was,  in 
some  degree,  diminished. 

u  A  council  of  war  was  held  by  the  Spaniards,  on  the 
eighth,  not  for  the  purpose  which  is  too  usual  in  such 
councils,  but  that  their  heroic  resolution  might  be  com- 
municated to  the  people.  It  was,  that,  in  those  quarters 
of  the  city,  where  the  Aragonese  still  maintained  their 
ground,  they  should  continue  to  defend  themselves,  with 
the  same  firmness.  Should  the  enemy  at  last  prevail, 
they  were  then  to  retire  over  the  Ebro,  into  the  suburbs, 
break  down  the  bridge,  and  defend  the  suburbs,  till  they 
nid.  When  this  resolution  was  made  public,  it 
was  received  with  tlm  loudest  acclamations.  But,  in 
every  conflict,  the  citizens  now  gained  ground  upon  the 
soldiers,  winning  it,  inch  by  inch,  till  the  space  occupied 
by  the  enemy,  which,  on  the  day  of  their  entrance,  was 


THE   SIEGE   OF  ZAttAGOZA.  331 

nearly  half  the  city,  was  reduced,  gradually,  to  about  an 
eighth  part.  Mean-time,  intelligence  of  the  events,  in 
other  parts  of  Spain,  was  received  by  the  French,  all 
tending  to  dishearten  them.  During  the  night  of  the 
thirteenth,  their  fire  was  particularly  fierce  and  destruc- 
tive ;  in  the  morning,  the  French  columns,  to  the  great 
surprise  of  the  Spaniards,  were  seen  at  a  distance,  re- 
treating over  the  plain,  on  the  road  to  Pampeluna."* 

Zaragoza,  however,  was  a  place  of  too  much  impor- 
tance, long  to  enjoy,  in  quiet,  her  hard-earned  laurels. 
In  the  course  of  the  Autumn,  the  French  recovered 
their  superiority,  in  Aragon  ;  and  had  no  sooner  done 
so,  than  they  bent  their  strength  to  repair  the  disgrace 
which  their  arms  had  sustained,  and  overthrow  the  firm- 
est bulwark  of  independence  in  the  western  provinces  of 
Spain.  The  inhabitants,  aware  that  their  heroic  resist- 
ance had  purchased  only  a  temporary  deliverance,  em- 
ployed the  intervening  time  in  repairing  and  improving 
their  external  defences  ;  and  still  more  so,  in  preparing 
to  renew,  to  greater  advantage,  that  internal  conflict 
in  which  experience  had  shown  their  real  strength  to 
exist. 

"  It  has  already  been  observed,  that  the  houses  of 
Zaragoza  were  fire-proof,  and,  generally,  of  only  two 
stories  ;  and  that,  in  all  the  quarters  of  the  city,  the 
numerous  and  massive  convents  and  churches  rose,  like 
castles,  above  the  low  buildings  ;  and  that  the  greater 
streets,  running  into  the  broadway,  called  the  Cosso, 
divided  the  town  into  a  variety  of  districts,  unequal  in 
size,  but  each  containing  one  or  more  large  structures. 
Now  the  citizens,  sacrificing  all  personal  convenience, 
and  resigning  all  idea  of  private  property,  gave  up  their 
goods,  their  bodies,  and  their  houses,  to  the  war  ;  and, 
being  promiscuously  mingled  with  the  peasantry  and  the 
regular  soldiers,  the  whole  formed  one  mighty  garrison, 
well  suited  to  the  vast  fortress  into  which  Zaragoza  was 
transformed  :  for  the  doors  and  windows  of  the  houses 
were  built  up,  and  their  fronts  loopholed  ;  internal  com- 

*  Southey,  History  Peninsular  War,  Chap.  ix.. 


332  GREAT   EVENTS. 

munications  were  broken  through  the  party-walls,  and 
the  streets  were  trenched  and  crossed  by  earthen  ram- 
parts mounted  with  cannon,  and  every  strong  building 
was  turned  into  a  separate  fortification.  There  was  no 
weak  point,  because  there  could  be  none,  in  a  town 
which  was  all  fortress,  and  where  the  space  covered  by 
the  city  was  the  measurement  for  the  thickness  of  the 
ramparts  ;  nor,  in  this  erriergency,  were  the  leaders  un- 
mindful of  moral  force. 

"  The  people  were  cheered,  by  a  constant  reference 
to  their  former  successful  resistance  ;  their  confidence 
was  raised,  by  the  contemplation  of  the  vast  works  that 
had  been  executed  ;  and  it  was  recalled  to  their  recollec- 
tion, that  the  wet,  usual  at  that  season  of  the  year,  would 
spread  disease  among  the  enemy's  ranks,-  and  impair,  if 
not  entirely  frustrate,  his  efforts.  Neither  was  the  aid 
of  superstition  neglected.  Processions  imposed  upon 
the  sight,  false  miracles  bewildered  the  imagination,  and 
terrible  denunciations  of  Divine  wrath  shook  the  minds, 
of  men  whose  former  habits  and  present  situation  render- 
ed them  peculiarly  susceptible  of  such  impressions.  Fi- 
nally, the  leaders  were  themselves  so  prompt  and  terrible, 
in  their  punishments,  that  the  greatest  cowards  were  like- 
ly to  show  the  boldest  bearing,  in  their  wish  to  escape 
suspicion. 

"  To  avoid  the  danger  of  any  great  explosion,  the 
powder  was  made,  as  occasion  required  ;  and  this  was 
the  more  easily  effected,  because  Zaragoza  contained 
a  royal  depot  and  refinery  for  saltpetre,  and  there  were 
powdermills  in  the  neighborhood,  which  furnished  work- 
men familiar  with  the  process  of  manufacturing  that  arti- 
cle. The  houses  and  trees  beyond  the  walls  were  all 
demolished  and  cut  down,  and  the  materials  carried  into 
the  town.  The  public  magazines  contained  six  months' 
provisions  ;  the  convents  were  well  stocked  ;  and  tin1  in- 
habitants had  likewise  laid  up  their  own  stores  for  several 
months.  General  Doyle  had  also  sent  a  convoy  into  tho 
town,  from  the  side  of  Catalonia  ;  and  there  was  abun 
dance  of  money,  because,  in  addition  to  the  resources 
of  the  town,  the  military  chest  of  Castanos's  army,  which 


THE   SIEGE   OF  ZARAGOZA.  333 

had  been  supplied  only  the  night  before  the  battle  of  Tu- 
dela,  had  been,  in  the  flight,  carried  into  the  town. 

"Companies  of, women,  enrolled  to  attend  the  hospi- 
tals, and  to  carry  provisions  and  ammunition  to  the  com- 
batants, were  commanded  by  the  Countess  Burita,  a  lady 
of  an  heroic  disposition,  who  is  said  to  have  displayed 
the  greatest  intelligence  and  the  noblest  character,  during 
both  sieges.  There  were  thirteen  engineer  officers,  and 
eight  hundred  sappers  and  miners,  composed  of  excavat- 
ors, formerly  employed  on  the  canal,  and  there  were 
from  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  cannoneers. 

u  The  regular  troops  that  fled  from  Tudela,  being 
joined  by  two  small  divisions  which  retreated,  at  the  same 
time,  from  Sanguessa  and  Caparosa,  formed  a  garrison 
of  thirty  thousand  men,  and,  together  with  the  inhabitants 
and  peasantry,  presented  a  mass  of  fifty  thousand  com- 
batants, who,  with  passions  excited  almost  to  frenzy, 
awaited  an  assault,  amidst  those  mighty  entrenchments, 
where  each  man's  home  was  a  fortress,  and  his  family  a 
garrison.  To  besiege,  with  only  thirty-five  thousand  men 
a  city  so  prepared,  was  truly  a  gigantic  undertaking."* 

It  was  on  December  20,  1808,  that  Marshals  Moncey 
and  Mortier  appeared  in  front  of  the  town.  We  pass 
over  the  early  part  of  the  siege,  which  contains  nothing 
to  distinguish  it  from  a  multitude  of  others.  The  French, 
supported  by  a  powerful  battering  and  mortar  train,  ad- 
vanced their  trenches  slowly  towards  the  town,  until  the 
twenty-second  of  January,  when  Marshal  Lasnes  arrived, 
to  assume  the  command.  On  the  twenty-ninth,  four 
breaches  were  declared  practicable.  That  night,  four 
columns  rushed  to  the  assault ;  one  was  repulsed,  the 
other  three  established  themselves  ;  and  the  ramparts  of 
the  city  became  the  front  line  of  the  French  trenches. 

"  The  walls  of  Zaragoza  thus  went  to  the  ground,  but 
Zaragoza  herself  remained  erect  ;  and,  as  the  broken 
girdle  fell  from  the  heroic  city,  the  besiegers  started,  at 
the  view  of  her  naked  strength.  The  regular  defences 
had  indeed  crumbled,  before  the  skill  of  the  assailants, 

*  Napier's  History  of  the  Peninsular  War,  Book  V.  Chap.  ii. 


334  GREAT   EVENTS. 

but  the  popular  resistance  \vas  immediately  called,  with 
its  terrors,  into  action.  ************* 
The  war  being  now  carried  into  the  streets  of  Zaragoza, 
the  sound  of  the  alarmbell  was  heard  over  all  the  quarters 
of  the  city,  and  the  people,  assembling  in  crowds,  filled 
the  houses  nearest  to  the  lodgements  made  by  the  French. 
Additional  traverses  and  barricadoes  were  constructed 
across  the  principal  streets  ;  mines  were  prepared  in  the 
more  open  spaces  ;  and  the  communications  from  house 
to  house  were  multiplied,  until  they  formed  a  vast  laby- 
rinth, of  which  the  intricate  windings  were  only  to  be 
traced  by  the  weapons  and  the  dead  bodies  of  the  de- 
fenders. The  members  of  the  Junta,  become  more 
powerful  from  the  cessation  of  regular  warfare,  with  re- 
doubled activity  and  energy  urged  the  defence,  but  in- 
creased the  horrors  of  the  siege,  by  a  ferocity  pushed  to 
the  very  verge  of  frenzy.  Every  person,  without  regard 
to  rank  or  age,  who  excited  the  suspicion  of  these  furious 
men,  or  those  immediately  about  them,  was  instantly  put 
to  death  ;  and,  amid  the  noble  bulwarks  of  war,  a  horrid 
array  of  gibbets  was  to  be  seen,  on  which,  crowds  of 
wretches  were  suspended,  each  night,  because  their  cour- 
age had  sunk  beneath  the  accumulating  dangers  of  their 
situation,  or  because  some  doubtful  expression,  or  gesture 
of  distress,  had  been  misconstrued  by  their  barbarous 
chiefs. 

"  From  the  heights  of  the  walls,  which  he  had  con- 
quered, Marshal  Lasnes  contemplated  this  terrific  scene  ; 
and,  judging  that  men  so  passionate  and  so  prepared, 
could  not  be  prudently  encountered,  in  open  battle,  he 
resolved  to  proceed  by  the  slow  but  certain  progress  of 
the  mattock  and  the  mine  ;  and  this  was  also  in  unison 
with  the  Kmperor's  instructions.  Hence,  from  the 
twenty-ninth  of  January  to  the  second  of  February,  the 
efforts  of  the  French  were  directed  to  the  enlargement 
of  their  lodgement  on  the  walls  ;  and  they  succeeded, 
after  much  severe  fiiijhtin^  and  several  explosions,  in 
working  forward,  through  the  nearest  houses  ;  but,  at  the 
same  time,  they  had  to  sustain  many  counter-assaults 
from  the  Spaniards. 


THE   SIEGE  OF  ZARAGOZA.  335 

ic  It  has  been  already  observed,  that  the  crossing  of 
the  large  streets  divided  the  town  into  certain  small  dis- 
tricts, or  islands  of  houses.  To  gain  possession  of  these, 
it  was  necessary,  not  only  to  mine,  but  to  fight  for  each 
house.  To  cross  the  large  intersecting  streets,  it  was 
indispensable  to  construct  traverses  above,  or  to  work  by 
underground  galleries,  because  a  battery  raked  each  street, 
and  each  house  was  defended  by  a  garrison,  that,  gener- 
ally speaking,  had  only  the  option  of  repelling  the  ene- 
my in  front,  or  dying  on  the  .gibbet  erected  behind.  But, 
as  long  as  the  convents  and  churches  remained  in  possess- 
ion of  the  Spaniards,  the  progress  of  the  French,  among 
the  islands  of  small  houses,  was  of  little  advantage  to 
them,  because  the  large  garrisons,  in  the  greater  buildings, 
enabled  the  defenders  not  only  to  make  continual  and 
successful  sallies,  but  also  to  countermine  their  enemies, 
whose  superior  skill,  in  that  kind  of  warfare,  was  often 
frustrated,  by  the  numbers  and  persevering  energy  of  the 
besieged.  ****************** 

cc  The  experience  of  these  attacks*  induced  a  change 
in  the  mode  of  fighting,  on  both  sides.  Hitherto,  the 
play  of  the  French  mines  had  reduced  the  houses  to 
ruins,  and  thus  the  soldiers  were  exposed  completely  to 
the  fire  from  the  next  Spanish  posts.  The  engineers 
therefore  diminished  the  quantity  of  powder,  that  the  in- 
terior only  might  fall,  and  the  outward  walls  stand,  and 
this  method  was  found  successful.  Hereupon,  the  Span- 
iards, with  ready  ingenuity,  saturated  the  timbers  and 
planks  of  the  houses,  with  rosin  and  pitch,  and,  setting 
fire  to  those  which  could  no  longer  be  maintained,  inter- 
posed a  burning  barrier,  which  often  delayed  the  assailants 
for  two  days,  and  always  prevented  them  from  pushing 
their  successes,  during  the  confusion  that  necessarily  fol 
lowed  the  bursting  of  the  mines.  The  fighting  was, 
however,  incessant ;  a  constant  bombardment,  the  explo 
sion  of  mines,  the  crash  of  falling  buildings,  clamorous 
shouts,  and  the  continued  echo  of  musketry,  deafened 

*  Attempts  made  by  the  French  to  force  their  way  into  the  centre 
of  the  city,  from  the  twenty-ninth  of  January  to  the  second  of  Feb- 
ruary. 


336  GREAT   EVENTS. 

the  ear,  while  volumes  of  smoke  and  dust  clouded  the 
atmosphere,  and  lowered,  continually,  over  the  heads  of 
the  combatants,  as,  hour  by  hour,  the  French,  with  a 
terrible  perseverance,  pushed  forwards  their  approaches 
to  the  heart  of  the  miserable  but  glorious  city. 

"  Their  efforts  were  chiefly  directed  against  two  points  ; 
namely,  that  of  San  Engracia,  which  may  be  denominat- 
ed the  left  attack,  and  that  of  St.  Augustin  and  St.  Mon- 
ica, which  constituted  the  right  attack.  At  San  Engra- 
cia, they  labored  on  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  Cosso,  __ 
from  which  they  were  separated  only  by  the  large  convent 
of  the  Daughters  of  Jerusalem,  and  by  the  hospital  for 
madmen,  which  was  intrenched,  although  in  ruins  since 
the  first  siege.  The  line  of  this  attack  was  protected,  on 
the  left,  by  the  convent  of  the  Capuchins,  which  General 
Lacoste  had  fortified,  to  repel  the  counter-assaults  of  the 
Spaniards.  The  right  attack  was  more  diffused,  because 
the  localities  presented  less  prominent  features,  to  deter- 
mine the  direction  of  the  approaches  ;  and  the  French, 
having  mounted  a  number  of  light  six-inch  mortars,  on 
peculiar  carriages,  drew  them  from  street  to  street,  and 
from  house  to  house,  as  occasion  offered.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Spaniards  continually  plied  their  enemies  with 
handgrenades,  which  seem  to  have  produced  a  surprising 
effect  ;  and,  in  this  manner,  the  never-ceasing  combat  was 
prolonged,  until  the  seventh  of  February,  when  the  be- 
siegers, by  dint  of  alternate  mines  and  assaults,  had  worked 
their  perilous  way,  at  either  attack,  to  the  Cosso,  but  not 
without  several  changes  of  fortune  and  considerable  loss. 
They  were,  however,  unable  to  obtain  a  footing  on  that 
public  walk,  for  the  Spaniards  still  disputed  every  house, 
with  uiuliminished  resolution.  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  * 

"  The  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth,  were  wasted  by  the 
besiegers,  in  vain  attempts  to  pass  the  Cosso  ;  they  then 
nded  their  Hanks.  *  *  *  The  eleventh  and  twelfth, 
mines  worn  worked  under  the  University,  a  large  building 
on  the  Spanish  side  of  the  Cosso,  in  the  line  of  the  right 
attack  ;  but  their  play  was  insiillieieni  to  open  the  walls, 
and  the  storming  party  was  beaten  with  the  loss  of  fifty 
men.  Nevertheless,  the  besiegers,  continuing  their  la- 


THE   SIEGE  OF  ZARAGOZA.  337 

bors  during  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  sixteenth, 
and  seventeenth,  passed  the«Cosso,  by  means  of  travers- 
es, and  prepared  fresh  mines  under  the  University,  but 
deferred  their  explosion,  until  a  simultaneous  effort  could 
be  combined  on  the  side  of  the  suburb. 

"  At  the  left  attack,  also,  a  number  of  houses,  border- 
ing on  the  Cosso,  being  gained,  a  battery  was  established, 
that  raked  that  great  thoroughfare  above  ground  ;  while, 
under  it,  six  galleries  were  carried,  and  six  mines  loaded, 
to  explode  at  the  same  moment.  But  the  spirit  of  the 
French  army  was  now  exhausted  ;  they  had  labored  and 
fought,  without  intermission,  for  fifty  days ;  they  had 
crumbled  the  walls  with  their  bullets,  burst  the  convents 
with  their  mines,  and  carried  the  walls  with  their  bayon- 
ets. Fighting  above  and  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  they  had  spared  neither  fire  nor  the  sword  ;  their 
bravest  men  were  falling,  in  the  obscurity  of  a  subterra- 
nean warfare  ;  famine  pinched  them  ;  and  Zaragoza  was 
still  unconquered  ! 

"  '  Before  this  siege,'  they  exclaimed,  c  was  it  ever 
heard,  that  twenty  thousand  men  should  besiege  fifty 
thousand  ?'  Scarcely  a  fourth  of  the  town  was  won,  and 
they,  themselves,  were  already  exhausted.  £  We  must 
wait,'  they  said,  '  for  reenforcements,  or  we  shall  all  per- 
ish, among  these  cursed  ruins,  which  will  become  our 
own  tombs,  before  we  can  force  the  last  of  these  fanatics 
from  the  last  of  their  dens.' 

"  Marshal  Lasnes,  unshaken  by  these  murmurs,  and 
obstinate  to  conquer,  endeavored  to  raise  the  soldiers' 
hopes.  He  pointed  out  to  them,  that  the  losses  of  the 
besieged  so  far  exceeded  their  own,  that  the  Spaniards' 
strength  must  soon  be  wasted,  and  their  courage  must 
sink,  and  that  the  fierceness  of  their  defence  was  already 
abated  :  but  if,  contrary  to  expectation,  they  should  re- 
new the  example  of  Numantia,  their  utter  destruction 
must  quickly  ensue,  from  the  combined  effects  of  battle, 
misery,  and  pestilence. 

u  These  exhortations  succeeded  ;  and,  on  the  eigh- 
teenth, all  the  combinations  being  complete,  a  general 
assault  took  place.  The  French  at  the  right  attack, 
29  G.  E. 


GREAT  EVENTS, 

having  opened  a  party-wall  by  the  explosion  of  a  petard, 
made  a  sudden  rush  through  some  burning  ruins,  and 
carried,  without  a  check,  the  island  of  houses  leading 
down  to  the  quay,  with  the  exception  of  two  buildings. 
The  Spaniards  were  thus  forced  to  abandon  all  the  ex- 
ternal fortifications  between  St.  Augustin  and  the  Ebro, 
which  they  had  preserved  until  that  day.  And,  while 
this  assault  was  in  progress,  the  mines  under  the  Univer- 
sity, containing  three  thousand  pounds  of  powder,  were 
sprung  ;  and  the  walls  tumbling  with  a  terrific  crash,  a 
column  of  the  besiegers  entered  the  place,  and,  after 
one  repulse,  secured  a  lodgement.  During  this  time, 
fifty  pieces  of  artillery  thundered  upon  the  suburb,  and 
ploughed  up  the  bridge  over  the  Ebro,  and,  by  mid-day, 
opened  a  practicable  breach  in  the  great  convent  of  St 
Lazar,  which  was  the  principal  defence  on  that  side 
Lasnes,  observing  that  the  Spaniards  seemed  to  be  shak 
en,  by  this  overwhelming  fire,  immediately  ordered  an 
assault ;  and,  St.  Lazar  being  carried,  forthwith,  all  re- 
treat to  the  bridge  was  thus  intercepted,  and  the  besieged, 
falling  into  confusion,  and  their  commander,  Baron  Ver- 
sage,  being  killed,  were  all  destroyed  or  taken,  with  the 
exception  of  two  or  three  hundred  men,  who,  braving  the 
terrible  fire  to  which  they  were  exposed,  got  back  into 
the  town.  General  Gazan  immediately  occupied  the 
abandoned  works  ;  and,  having  thus  cut  off  above  two 
thousand  men  that  were  stationed  on  the  Ebro,  above 
the  suburb,  forced  them,  also,  to  surrender. 

"  This  important  success  being  followed,  on  the  nine- 
teenth, by  another  fortunate  attack  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ebro,  and  by  the  devastating  explosion  of  sixteen  hun- 
dred pounds  of  powder,  the  constancy  of  the  besieged  was. 
at  last  shaken.  An  aid-de-camp  of  Palafox  came  forth, 
to  demand  certain  terms,  before  offered  by  the  Marshal, 
adding  thereto,  that  the  garrison  should  be  allowed  tc 
join  the  Spanish  armies,  and  that  a  certain  number  of 
covered  carriages  should  follow  them.  Lasnes  rejected 
these  proposals,  and  the  fire  continued,  but  the  hour  of 
surrender  was  come.  Fifty  pieces  of  artillery,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Ebro,  laid  the  houses  on  the  quay  in 


THE    SIEGE   OF  ZARAGOZA.  300 

• 

ruins.  The  church  of  Our  Lady  qf  the  Pillar,  u-ider 
whose  especial  protection  the  city  was  supposed  to  exist, 
was  nearly  effaced  by  the  bombardment ;  and  the  six 
mines  under  the  Cosso,  loaded  with  many  thousand 
pounds  of  powder,  were  ready  for  a  simultaneous  explo- 
sion, which  would  have  laid  a  quarter  of  the  remaining 
houses  in  the  dust.  In  fine,  war  had  done  its  work, 
and  the  misery  of  Zaragoza  could  no  longer  be  en- 
dured. 

u  The  bombardment,  which  had  never  ceased  from 
the  tenth  of  January,  had  forced  the  women  and  children 
to  take  refuge  in  the  vaults,  with  which  the  city  abound- 
ed. There,  the  constant  combustion  of  oil,  the  close- 
ness of  the  atmosphere,  unusual  diet,  and  fear  and  rest- 
lessness of  mind,  had  combined  to  produce  a  pestilence, 
which  soon  spread  to  the  garrison.  The  strong  and 
weak,  the  daring  soldier  and  the  timid  child,  alike  fell 
before  it ;  and  such  was  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
the  disposition  to  disease,  that  the  slightest  wound  gan- 
grened, and  became  incurable.  In  the  beginning  of  Feb- 
ruary, the  deaths  were  from  four  to  five  hundred,  daily  ; 
the  living  were  unable  to  bury  the  dead  ;  and  thousands 
of  carcasses,  scattered  about  the  streets  and  court-yards, 
or  piled  in  heaps,  at  the  doors  of  the  churches,  were  left 
to  dissolve,  in  their  own  corruption,  or  to  be  licked  up 
by  the  flames  of  the  burning  houses,  as  the  defence  be- 
came contracted. 

"  The  suburb,  the  greatest  portion  of  the  walls,  and 
one-fourth  of  the  houses,  were  in  the  hands  of  the  French. 
Sixteen  thousand  shells,  thrown  during  the  bombardment, 
and  the  explosion  of  forty-five  thousand  pounds  of  pow- 
der, in  the  mines,  had  shaken  the  city  to  its  foundations  ; 
and  the  bones  of  more  than  forty  thousand  persons,  of 
every  age  and  sex,  bore  dreadful  testimony  to  the  con- 
stancy of  the  besieged. 

"  Palafox  was  sick ;  and,  of  the  plebeian  chiefs,  the 
most  distinguished  having  been  slain  in  battle,  or  swept 
away  by  the  pestilence,  the  obdurate  violence  of  the  re- 
maining leaders  was  so  abated,  that  a  fresh  Junta  was 
formed  ;  and,  after  a  stormy  consultation,  the  majority 


340  GREAT   EVENTS. 

• 

being  for  a  surrender,  a  deputation  waited  on  Marshal 
Lasnes  on  the  twentieth  of  February,  to  negotiate  a  ca- 
pitulation."* 

Some  doubt  exists,  as  to  the  terms  obtained.  The 
French  writers  assert,  that  the  place  surrendered  at  dis- 
cretion ;  the  Spaniards  say,  the  following  conditions  were 
obtained  :  that  the  garrison  should  march  out  with  the 
honors  of  war,  to  be  constituted  prisoners,  and  marched 
to  France  ;  the  peasants  to  be  sent  home,  and  property 
and  religion  to  be  guarantied.  On  the  twenty-first,  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  thousand  sickly  men  laid  down  the  arms 
which  they  could  scarcely  support,  and  this  memorable 
Siege  was  terminated. 

*  Napier,  History  of  Peninsular  War,  Book  V.  chap.  iii. 


GLOSSARY 


OF  WORDS  AND  PHRASES  NOT  EASILY  TO  BE  UNDERSTOOD 
BY  THE  YOUNG  READER. 

[Many  names  of  persons  and  places,  terms  of  art,  &c.,  which 
occur  in  this  Volume,  will  be  found  explained  in  one  of  the  places 
where  they  occur.  For  these,  see  INDEX.] 

Jlarau,  (or  Jlrau,)  the  capital  of  Jlargau,  one  of  the  cantons  (or  dis- 
tricts) of  Switzerland. 

Jlarberg,  (or  Arberg,)  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Berne, 
oft  the  River  Aar. 

Jlargau,  (or  Argau,)  one  of  the  cantons  (or  districts)  of  Switzerland, 
formerly  a  part  of  the  cantons  of  Berne  and  Zurich. 

Academy,  the  French,  a  literary  society,  in  Paris,  formed  A.  D.  1629. 
consisting  of  forty  members,  styled  academicians.  Its  object  is  the 
cultivation  of  literature  and  criticism.  The  Memoirs  of  the  Acade- 
my are  collections  of  papers,  on  various  subjects,  contributed  by  its 
members,  and  published  from  time  to  time. 

Jlcarnania,  (now  called  Carnia,)  a  country  in  the  northwestern  part 
of  ancient  Greece,  west  of  ^Etolia,  and  bordering  on  the  Ionian  Sea. 

Accessor,  (or,  in  Latin,  accensus,)  an  officer,  whose  business  it  was 
to  attend  upon  the  judicial  magistrates  in  ancient  Rome  ;  a  messen- 
ger, pursuivant,  or  beadle. 

Jlchaia,  properly,  a  narrow  district  of  the  Peloponnesus,  (now  called 
the  Morea,)  lying  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  (now  the  Gulf  of 
Lepanto.)  The  term  was  sometimes  applied  to  the  whole  of  Greece, 
and  sometimes,  as  by  Herodotus,  (page  11,)  to  the  southern  part 
of  Thessaly,  called  Phthiotis. 

Achilles,  one  of  the  Grecian  heroes,  who  fought  at  the  siege  of  Troy, 
and  who  is  celebrated  in  the  Iliad  of  Homer.  He  was  remarkable 
for  his  courage,  and  also  for  having  been  the  bravest  of  all  the  Greeks 
in  the  Trojan  war.  He  is  said  to  have  been,  while  an  infant,  dipped 
by  his  mother  in  the  River  Styx,  which  rendered  him  invulnerable, 
(or  incapable  of  being  hurt,)  in  every  part  except  the  heel,  by  which 
she  held  him.  At  the  siege  of  Troy  he  received  a  wound  in  the 
heel,  which  caused  his  death.  He  severely  wounded  Telephus,  King 
of  Mysia,  in  battle,  and  it  being  declared,  by  an  Oracle,  that 
"  the  weapon  alone,  which  had  inflicted  the  wound,  could  cure  it," 
Achilles  applied  the  rust  from  the  point  of  his  spear  to  the  sore, 
which  is  said  to  have  given  it  immediate  relief,  and  effected  a  cure. 
It  is  to  this  circumstance,  that  Pope  Clement  alluded,  when,  as  men- 
tioned on  page  263,  he  compared  Cardinal  Colonna  to  "  the  lance 
of  Achilles." 

.y  (now  called  Azio,)  a  promontory  on  the  western  coast  of 
29* 


342  GLOSSARY. 

Greeie,  famous  as  the  scene  of  a  naval  battle  between  Octavius  and 
Antony,  B.  C.  31.  Cleopatra  was  on  the  side  of  Antony,  but  fled, 
witj  her  sixty  ships,  shortly  after  the  action  commenced,  and  was 
followed  by  Antony  ;  leaving  the  victory  to  Octavius. 

JEgean  Sea,  the -ancient  name  of  the  sea  lying  between  the  coasts  of 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  From  a  corruption  of  the  word  JEgceo- 
pelago,  the  modern  Greek  pronunciation  of  Atyaiov  Ililayog,  (the 
uEgean  Sea,)  comes  the  word  Archipelago,  which  is  applied  to  any 
sea  abounding  in  small  islands,  or  to  the  groups  of  islands  themselves. 
It  is  more  particularly  applied,  however,  to  those  of  the  JEgean  Sea. 

JEgina,  (now  called  Engia,)  an  island  in  the  Saronic  gulf,  (now  gulf 
of  Engia,)  lying  west  of  the  southern  point  of  Attica. 

JEschylus,  the  most  ancient  of  the  tragic  poets  of  Greece,  was  born 
B.  C.  525,  and  lived  to  the  age  of  seventy  years.  His  works  are 
marked  by  a  stern  and  simple  grandeur.  Of  as  many  as  seventy 
tragedies,  written  by  him,  only  seven  are  now  extant.  In  the  earlier 
part  of  his  life,  JEschylus  was  a  soldier,  and  fought  in  the  battles  of 
Marathon  and  Salamis. 

JEsculapius,  in  the  ancient  mythology,  was  the  god  of  medicine,  and 
a  son  of  Apollo.  He  is  usually  represented  as  holding  a  staff,  round 
which  is  entwined  a  serpent,  the  emblem  of  convalescence  ;  and 
near  him  stands  a  cock,  the  emblem  of  watchfulness. 

Afrasiab,  an  ancient  Tartar  prince,  son  of  Pushung,  King  of  Turan. 
He  invaded  Persia,  and  became  King  of  that  country,  which  he 
ruled  for  twelve  years  ;  after  which,  he  suffered  many  reverses,  be- 
ing driven  from  Persia,  defeated  in  several  battles,  and  finally  cap- 
tured, and  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  Persian  monarch,  Kai  Kho- 
osroo.  He  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  between  B.  C.  600  and 
700. 

Aga,  the  title  of  a  Turkish  military  officer,  a  captain. 

Ajaccio,  the  capital, of  Corsica,  and  the  birthplace  of  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte. 

Jllba,  (or  alb,)  a  white  linen  vestment,  resembling  a  surplice,  anciently 
worn  by  the  clergy  in  the  administration  of  the  Holy  Communion. 

Alpnach,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Berne. 

Altdorff,  (or  Altorf,)  the  chief  town  in  the  canton  of  Uri,  in  Switzer- 
land. 

Amphyction,  an  ancient  Grecian  king,  the  founder  of  the  Council  of 
the  Amphyctions,  an  assembly  composed  of  deputies  from  the  states 
of  Greece,  who  had  their  «  seats,'  or  place  of  assembly,  first  at  Del- 
phi, and  afterwards  at  the  village  of  Anthela,  near  ThermopylcD. 
Tliis  Council  took  cognizance  of  public  dissensions  between  states 
and  cities,  and  of  various  civil  and  criminal  offences. 

Analecta  Vetcrum  Poetarum  Gretcorum,  Fragments  from  the  An- 
cient (irrck  Toeta. 

Anatolia,  (or  \atolia,)  anciently  called  Asia  Minor,  a  country  lying 
between  tli  \rdiipelago  on  the  west,  the  Black  Sea  on  tin; 

north,  Armenia  ;iml  Syria  mi  tin:  cast,  and  tin-  .Mfililciraiiran  on  the 
goutli. 

Antias,  (Latin,)  an  inhabitant  of  Antium,  a  city  of  ancient  Italy,  on 
the  Mediterranean.  Valeriut  Antia*,  or  Valerius  of  Antium,  wa§ 


GLOSSARY.  343 

an  ancient  historian,  frequently  cited  by  Livy,  but  none  of  his  works 
have  come  down  to  us. 

Anticyra,  a  city  in  Thessaly,  the  situation  of  which  is  described  on 
'page  11. 

Antiochus  (the  Great)  became  King  of  Syria,  B.  C.  244.  Having 
been  victorious  against  various  other  nations,  he  made  war  against 
the  Romans,  but  was  unsuccessful,  and  was  obliged  to  conclude  a 
humiliating  peace. 

dpollodorus,  a  friend  of  Socrates. 

Apology,  a  defence  of  one  who  is  accused.  «  Plato's  Apology'  is  a 
defence  of  Socrates  from  the  unjust  charges  brought  against  him, 
and  Socrates  is  introduced  in  it,  speaking  in  his  own  person. 

Apparitor,  a  general  name,  applied  to  any  attendant  upon,  or  public 
servant  of,  a  Roman  magistrate. 

Apropos,  (French,)  opportunely  ;  to  the  purpose. 

Apulia,  a  country  of  ancient  Italy,  lying  upon  the  Adriatic  Sea,  (now 
Gulf  of  Venice.)  _ 

Arcadia,  a  mountainous  country  of  ancient  Greece,  in  the  central  part 
of  the  Peloponnesus. 

Archipelago,  see  JEgean  Sea. 

Argau,  see  Aargau. 

Arginusce,  the  name  of  some  islands  in  the  JEgean  Sea,  near  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  near  which  a  naval  battle  was  fought  between  the 
Athenians  and  Lacedaemonians,  B.  C.  405,  in  which  the  former  were 
victorious.  But  the  Athenian  generals,  being  prevented  by  a  storm 
from  taking  up  the  dead  bodies  in  order  to  their  interment,  drew 
upon  themselves  the  resentment  of  their  countrymen,  and  were  ac- 
cused of  wilfully  neglecting  what  was  considered  a  sacred  duty  to 
the  dead.  They  were  recalled  from  their  command,  and  the  six- 
generals  who  returned  to  Athens,  were  tried  before  the  people,  on 
this  unjust  charge,  and  were  condemned,  and  executed. 

Ariosto,  a  celebrated  Italian  poet,  born  in  1474.  His  great  work  is 
the  '  Orlando  Furioso,'  an  epic  poem,  in  forty-six  cantos,  written 
with  great  liveliness  of  narration  and  richness  of  invention,  and  which 
is  ranked  by  the  Italians  among  the  masterpieces  of  their  literature. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  fifty-eight. 

Aristides,  an  Athenian,  who  was  one  of  the  generals  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon,  B.  C.  490,  and  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Plataeae,  B.  C. 
479.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  strict  integrity,  in  which  his  fel- 
low-citizens, on  various  occasions,  manifested  their  entire  confi- 
dence, and  he  bore,  in  Athens,  the  surname  of '  the  Just.' 

Aristophanes,  a  comic  poet,  of  Athens,  who  flourished  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury before  Christ.  His  comedies  (eleven  of  which,  out  of  fifty-four, 
now  remain)  were  greatly  admired  by  the  Athenians,  for  the  rich- 
ness of  their  wit,  and  the  polished  grace  of  the  style  in  which  they 
were  composed.  TJ  modern  tastCj  they  appear  gross  and  immoral. 
Agreeably  to  the  freedom  of  ancient  comedy,  persons  living  at  the 
time  were  brought  upon  the  stage  by  name,  and  made  the  subjects 
of  the  most  unbridled  sarcasm.  Thus  Socrates  was  one  of  the  *  per- 
sons of  the  drama'  in  the  comedy  of '  the  Clouds,'  which  is  devoted 
to  the  ridicule  of  himself  and  his  school. 


344  GLOSSARY. 

Aristotle,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  philosophers  of  Greece,  who  was 
born  B.  C.  384,  at  Stagira,  in  Macedonia,  (whence  he  is  often  term- 
ed *  the  Stagirite.')  He  went  to  Athens,  at  the  age  of  eighteen  years, 
and  remained  there  twenty  years,  a  pupil  of  Plato,  and  himself  the 
master  of  a  school  of  rhetoric.  He  was  afterwards  trie  tutor  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and,  after  the  accession  of  Alexander  to  the  throne 
of  Macedon,  repaired  to  Athens,  where  he  opened  a  school  of  philos- 
ophy at  the  Lyceum,  a  gymnasium  near  Athens.  He  left  Athens  to 
escape  prosecution  on  a  charge  of  atheism,  and  shortly  after  de- 
stroyed himself  by  poison.  Various  works  of  this  philosopher  yet 
remain,  on  political  and  moral  science,  and  natural  history. 

Arquebuss,  (or  harquebuss,)  one  of  the  earliest  forms  of  firearms,  of 
the  ordinary  length  of  a  musket,  and  carrying  a  ball  of  about  two 
ounces.  Soldiers  armed  with  it  were  called  arquebusiers. 

Aragonese,  inhabitants  of  Aragon,  formerly  a  distinct  kingdom  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Spain.  In  1474,  it  was  united  with  Castile,  an- 
other of  the  chief  divisions  of  Spain,  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand, 
King  of  Aragon,  with  Isabella,  Queen  of  Castile  ;  and  they,  by  the 
conquest  of  the  Moors,  who  then  possessed  the  southern  part  of 
Spain,  became  subsequently  Sovereigns  of  the  whole  Spanish  terri- 
tory. 

Arty  a  town  in  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Schwytz,  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  Lake  Zug. 

Asia  Minor,  see  Anatolia. 

Astrology,  an  art,  which  pretends  to  foretell  future  events,  especially 
the  fate  of  men,  from  the  position  of  the  stars. 

Athens,  the  most  renowned  city  of  ancient  Greece,  was  the  capital  of 
Attica,  a  country  lying  in  the  eastern  part  of  Greece,  on  the  shores 
of  the  ^Egcan  Sea.  It  was  remarkable  for  the  magnificence  of  its 
public  buildings,  and  for  the  beautiful  works  of  art  which  adorned 
them.  It  was  the  resort  of  poets,  artists,  and  philosophers,  and 
abounded  in  schools  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric.  Athens  is  still  in- 
teresting, for  the  remains  of  ancient  architecture  found  there,  in  a 
more  or  less  perfect  state  of  preservation,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  pres- 
ent government  of  Greece. 

Atmeidan,  (horse-place,)  the  name  given  by  the  Turks  to  the  Hippo- 
drome at  Constantinople.  Hippodrome  (horse-course)  is  a  Greek 
word,  signifying  a  public  place  where  horse  and  chariot  races  were 
held.  That  at  Constantinople  was  remarkable  for  its  splendor, 
being  adorned  with  numerous  beautiful  works  of  sculpture  ;  many 
relics  of  which  exist  ;it  the  present  day. 

Attabals,  Turkish  inu-i>-al  instruments. 

Attica,  a  country  of  Greece,  forming  a  kind  of  triangular  peninsula  al 
the  southeastern  point  of  that  part  of  Greece  north  of  the  Pclopon 
nesus,  or  Mori -,\.  Athens  was  its  capital. 

Augury,  the  prediction  of  future  events,  by  signs  derived  from  va- 
rious appearances  of  Nature,  and  particularly  the  flight  of  birds. 

Auguslincs,  an  order  of  monks  and  nuns,  established  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  nai  8t.  Augustine,  who  was  one  of  the  must 

renowned  fathers  of  tin1  ('liri-tian  ('hutch,  and   lived   in  the  fourth 
century.     Before  the  Reformation,  this  order  possessed  two  thous- 


GLOSSARY.  345 

and  convents,  containing  thirty  thousand  monks,  and  three  hundred 
nunneries.     Luther  was  a  monk  of  this  order. 

Auricular  confession,  the  disclosure  of  sins  to  a  priest,  with  a  view 
to  obtain  pardon  for  them,  a  practice  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  priest  enjoins  a  penance,  (or  self-inflicted  punishment,)  pro- 
portioned to  the  magnitude  of  the  offence.  The  priest,  hearing  con- 
fession, is  styled  a  confessor. 

Auvergne,  formerly  a  large  and  important  province,  in  the  interior  of 
France. 

dve  Maria,  the  name  of  a  Latin  prayer  to  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus, 
much  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  commencing  with 
the  words,  Jive,  Maria!  (Hail,  Mary  !) 

dvon,  the  name  of  four  different  rivers  in  England.  Two  of  them 
flow  into  the  Severn  ;  at  the  town  of  Stratford,  on  one  of  which, 
Shakspeare  was  born. 

Avoyer,  the  title  of  the  chief  magistrate  of  a  Swiss  town. 

Jlzymites.  In  the  controversies  between  the  Roman  and  Greek  Cath- 
olics, the  former  contended  that  the  bread  of  the  sacrament  ought  to 
be  azymus,  (from  the  Greek  u^vuog,  unleavened,)  and  were  hence 
called  Azymites. 

Bailiff.  The  magistrates  appointed  by  the  Austrians  over  Switzer- 
land had  the  title  of  vogt,  or  landvogt,  meaning  bailiff ',  by  which 
title  they  were  also  called,  and  which  is  equivalent  to  sheriff  or 
governor.  The  district  governed  by  a  vogt  (or  bailiff)  was  called 
a  vogtei  or  bailiwick.  The  word  bailiff  was  also  the  title  of  a  class 
of  officers  in  the  order  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John.  (See  page  159.) 
Eight  Bailiffs,  with  the  G-rand  Master  at  their  head,  formed  the  chap- 
ter, or  grand  council  of  the  order. 

Barbacan,  a  fortification  before  the  walls  of  a  town  ;  a  fortress  at  the 
end  of  a  bridge  ;  an  opening  in  the  wall,  out  of  which  to  shoot. 

Barricade,  (or  Barricado,)  a  temporary  fortification,  made  by  heaping 
together  various  objects,  such  as  wagons,  chests,  casks,  beams, 
branches  of  trees,  stones,  &c.,  for  the  purpose  of  retarding  an  en 
emy,  and  giving  an  opportunity  of  firing  upon  him  while  he  is  en 
gaged  in  removing  them. 

Basha,  (or  Bashaw,  now  usually  written  Pacha,)  the  title  of  the  mili 
tary  governor  of  a  Turkish  province. 

Bastion,  the  projecting  part  of  the  principal  wall  of  a  fortified,  ,plai  e 
The  wall  between  two  bastions  is  called  the  curtain. 

Battering-ram,  a  long  beam,  like  the  mast  of  a  ship,  armed  at  OIK 
end  with  iron,  in  the  form  of  a  ram's  head,  and  employed  in  break 
ing  down  the  wall  of  a  besieged  place.  It  was  one  of  the  most  f» 
midable  engines  of  ancient  warfare.  Being  suspended  by  the  mid 
die  with  ropes  or  chains,  fastened  to  a  beam  that  lay  across  twt. 
posts,  and  thus  hanging  equally  balanced,  it  was  violently  thru.  I 
forward,  by  about  a  hundred  men,  till  its  iron  head  had  effected  u 
breach  in  the  wall  of  the  fortress. 

Battery,  any  raised  place,  in  which  cannon  are  planted  ;  a  fortifica 
tion  provided  with  cannon.  A  line  of  cannon  planted  against  a 
battery,  is  called,  in  reference  to  it,  a  Counterbattery. 

Bavin,  a  piece  of  wood,  like  those  of  which  fagots  are  made  ;  any 
piece  of  waste  wood. 


CJ40  GLOSSARY. 

Bayojine,  a  wealthy  commercial  city  in  France,  on  the  bay  of  Biscay. 

Begler-bei,  (or  Begler-beg,  lord  of  lords,)  the  title  of  a  governor  of 
a  Turkish  province. 

Behemoth^  a  Hebrew  word,  signifying  a  beast  of  burden.  The  behe- 
moth, spoken  of  in  the  book  of  Job,  is  supposed,  by  some,  to  be  a 
hippopotamus  ;  by  others,  an  ox  ;  by  many,  an  elephant.  By  the 
early  Fathers,  the  devil  was  supposed  to  be  meant  by  it. 

Belgrade,  a  city  of.  European  Turkey,  on  the  Danube.  It  was  con- 
quered by  the  Turks,  under  Solymajn  the  Second,  in  1521  ;  previ- 
ously to  winch,  it  had  been  in  the  possession  of  the  Austrians. 
Since  that  time,  it  has  repeatedly  passed  from  the  Turks  to  the  Aus- 
trians, but  finally  has  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks. 

Benedictines,  an  order  of  monks,  so  named  from  its  founder,  St.  Ben- 
edict, by  whom  it  was  established  in  the  sixth  century.  In  the 
twelfth  century,  there  were  two  thousand  monasteries  belonging  to 
this  order. 

Berne,  or  Bern,  one  of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland,  having  a  capital 
city  of  the  same  name. 

Bceotia,  a  country  of  ancient  Greece,  lying  northwest  of  Attica. 
Thebes  was  its  capital  city. 

^Bombardment,  an  attack  made  by  throwing  bombs,  which  are  hollow 
iron  balls,  filled  with  powder  and  combustibles,  and  employed  for 
setting  fire  to  houses,  blowing  up  magazines,  &c.  The  bomb, 
which  has  a  hole  in  which  a  fuse  is  inserted,  is  discharged  from  a 
kind  of  short  cannon,  called  a  mortar.  The  fuse,  which  is  a  hol- 
low wooden  plug,  filled  with  some  preparation  which  burns  regu- 
larly and  rapidly,  is  made  of  such  length,  as  that  the  bomb  shall 
not  explode  till  it  reaches  its  destined  place.  It  then  bursts,  and  its 
fragments  destroy  every  thing  within  reach. 

Bonaparte,  see  Napoleon,  and  also,  pages  236,  237. 

Bosnia,  a  province  of  European  Turkey. 

Bosphorus,  the  ancient  name  of  the  strait  (now  called  the  canal  or 
strait  of  Constantinople)  which  leads  from  the  Black  Sea  into  the 
Sea  of  Marmora. 

Brandenberg,a.n  extensive  district  in  Germany,  formerly  governed  by 
an  elector,  and  now  forming  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  Prus- 
sian states. 

Breakwater,  or  mole,  a  structure  employed  to  form  an  artificial  har- 
bor. It  consists  of  a  vast  heap  of  large  stones,  the  top  of  which 
rises  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  This  breaks  the  force  of  the 
waves,  and  affords,  within  the  mole,  safe  anchorage. 

Breisach,  (or  Brisach,)  a  town  on  the  Rhine,  formerly  one  of  the 
strongest  towns  in  Europe,  and  the  capital  of  the  Breisgau. 

Breisgau,  (or  Brisgav,)  an  extensive  tract  in  the  southwest  part  of 
Germany,  formerly  in  the  possession  of  Austria,  but  now  belonging 
to  Baden.  It  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  parts  of  Germany. 

Bremgarten,  a  town  of  Aargau,  in  Switzerland. 

Hrexria,  a  city  of  Austri.m  It-ily,  in  tin;  government  of  Milan.  It  11 
;i  hmdsome  city,  of  about  thirty-five  thousand  inhabitants,  and  noted 
for  its  manufactures. 

Brigantine,  a  light,  flat,  open  vessel,  with  ten  or  fifteen  oars  on  a 
aide,  capable  of  carrying  one  huudred  men  ;  much  used  on  tho 


GLOSSARY.  347 

Mediterranean.     The  name  is  sometimes,  however,  applied  to  the 
two-masted,  square-rigged  vessel,  called  a  brig. 

Brocade^  a  woven  stuff  of  silk,  variegated  with  figures  of  foliage  or 
flowers,  in  gold  and  silver. 

Brunnen,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in  the  district  of  Schwytz. 

Brutus,  (Lucius  Junius,)  a  nephew  of  Tarquin  the  Proud,  the  last 
King  of  Rome,  whose  enmity  he  eluded  by  feigning  himself  insane, 
whence  he  was  surnamed  Brutus  (the  stupid.)  On  the  occasion 
of  the  death  of  Lucretia,  who  slew  herself  in  consequence  of  the 
brutal  outrage  of  a  son  of  Tarquin,  Brutus  threw  off  the  disguise  of 
stupidity,  and  was  one  of  the  most  vigorous  agents  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  kings  from  Rome.  The  regal  office  being  abolished,  the 
chief  authority  was  given  to  two  magistrates,  called  consuls,  and 
Brutus  was  one  of  the  first  two  chosen  to  this  office.  He  was  slain 
in  battle,  B.  C.  509. 

Bulgarian,  belonging  to  Bulgaria,  a  province  of  European  Turkey, 
named  from  the  Bulgarians,  an  Asiatic  tribe,  who  removed  to  Eu- 
rope in  the  sixth  century.  Bulgaria  is  a  mountainous  country,  lying 
south  of  the  Danube,  and  west  of  the  Black  Sea. 

Bull,  an  ordinance  or  decree  of  the  Pope,  written  on  parchment,  and 
provided  with  a  leaden  seal.  The  Latin  word  bulla,  signifying  a 
knob  or  boss,  was  originally  applied  to  the  seal  itself,  and' afterwards 
to  the  whole  instrument.  On  page  142,  a  reference  is  made  to  the 
bull  beginning  with  the  words  in  Cozna  Domini,  (in  the  Lord's 
Supper.)  This  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  papal 
bulls,  for  its  arrogance  of  tone.  It  asserted  the  supreme  authority 
of  the  Church  of  Rome  over  all  temporal  power,  and  declared  sen- 
tence of  excommunication  upon  all  heretics  and  favorers  of  heretics. 
-  It  was  founded  upon  old  papal  decrees,  and  was  at  various  times, 
from  the  fourteenth  to  the  seventeenth  century,  extended  and  mod- 
ified. 

Burgess,  (plural,  burgesses,)  a  citizen  ;  a  freeman  of  a  city  or  town  ; 
it  sometimes  signifies  a  representative  of  a  city  or  town. 

Burgher,  (from  the  German,)  a  citizen  ;  one  having  the  privilege  of 
citizenship  in  any  place. 

Burgomaster,  the  title  of  a  chief  magistrate  of  large  towns  in  the 
Netherlands  and  Germany. 

Burgonians,  (for  Burgundians,)  inhabitants  of  Burgundy. 

Burgrave,  a  German  title  of  nobility  ;  captain,  governor,  or  lord,  of 
a  city  or  castle. 

Burgundy,  a  province  in  the  east  of  France,  forming  an  independent 
kingdom  till  1361,  when  it  was  annexed  to  the  French  crown.  It 
is  remarkable  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and  the  excellence  of  its 
wines. 

Byzantine  empire.  In  the  year  395,  the  Emperor  Theodosius  divi- 
ded the  Roman  empire  between  his  two  sons,  giving  to  Honorius 
the  western  portion,  and  to  Arcadius  the  eastern.  The  latter  was 
called  the  Byzantine  empire,  from  its  seat  of  government,  Byzan- 
tium, (now  called  Constantinople  ;)  and  survived  the  western  em- 
pire, (the  seat  of  which  was  at  Rome,)  about  one  thousand  years 
lasting  till  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  in  1453 


348  GLOSSARY. 

Calatia,  a  town  of  ancient  Italy,  in  Campania. 

Caliph,  (more  properly  Khalif,)  the  imperial  title  assumed  by  the  suc- 
cessors of  Mohammed  among  the  Saracens,  (which  see,)  who  were 
vested  with  absolute  power  in  affairs  both  religicus  and  civil.  The 
word  is  Arabic,  and  signifies  a  vicar,  substitute,  heir,  or  successor. 

Caloyers,  an  order  of  monks,  of  the  Greek  Church,  the  rules  of  which 
enjoin  solitude,  and  the  greatest  austerity  and  abstinence. 

Camillas,  (Marcus  Furius,)  an  illustrious  Roman  warrior.  After 
waving  held  vcrrious  high  offices  in  the  state,  and  conquered,  in  sev- 
eral wars,  the  enemies  of  Rome,  he  was  unjustly  accused  of  having 
embezzled  a  part  of  the  plunder  of  Veii,  (a  city  of  Etruria,  van- 
quished by  Camillus,  when  dictator,)  and  went  into  voluntary  exile. 
But  when  Rome  was  in  imminent  danger  from  the  Gauls,  Camillus, 
being  again  appointed  dictator  by  his  repentant  countrymen,  took 
command  of  a  body  of  Romans  who  had  fled  to  Veii,  marched  to 
Rome,  and  rescued  the  city  from  the  Gauls.  The  services  of  CamiJ- 
lus  were  required  in  various  subsequent  wars  ;  he  was  five  times 
made  dictator  ;  and,  when  eighty  years  old,  vanquished  a  new  army 
of  Gauls,  who  had  approached  the  city.  He  died  of  the  plague, 
B.  C.  365. 

Campania,  the  ancient  name  of  a  province  of  Italy,  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, in  the  present  kingdom  of  Naples.  It  has  always  been  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  fruitful  portions  of  Italy. 

Candiotes,  inhabitants  of  Candia,  (anciently  Crete,)  an  important 
island  in  the  Mediterranean,  lying  south  of  the  Grecian  Archipel- 
ago. It  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Venetians,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  to  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  it 
was  conquered  by  the  Turks,  after  a  long,  bloody,  and  obstinate  war. 

The  great  Cannon  of  Mohammed,  several  times  mentioned  in  this 
Volume  is  said  to  have  thrown  a  stone  ball  weighing  six  hundred 
pounds. 

Cantabria,  the  ancient  name  of  a  country  in  the  north  of  Spain,  bor- 
dering on  the  bay  of  Biscay. 

Cantacuzene.  The  family  name  of  two  of  the  Byzantine  emperors, 
John  and  Matthew,  who  held  the  Imperial  throne  from  A.  J>.  I."U, 
to  1355.  The  former  is  considered  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
successors  of  Const.-tntine  ihe  (treat. 

Cantemir,  (Demetrius,)  an  author  of  some  considerable  works,  born 
in  Moldavia,  (a  province  of  European  Turkey,  bordering  on  Russia,) 
in  1673.  He  was  repeatedly  appointed  prince  of  .Molila\ia,  under 
the  Turkish  government,  but  finally  entered  into  a  treaty  with  the 
I'.mperor  of  Russia,  and  became  a  prince  of  the  Russi.ni  Umpire. 
His  principal  works  are,  a  '  History  of  the  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Ot- 
toman Empire  ;'  '  The  System  of  the  Mohammedan  religion  ;'  and 
'  Th«  present  state  of  Moldavia,'  with  a  large  Map  of  tin:  country. 

Capitol,  the.  cit.-idel  of  ancient  Rome,  standing  iijmn  OIK-  of  the  seven 
hills  on  which  Home  was  built,  called  the  Capitoline  hill.  The  ed- 
ifice of  the  cnpitol  was  square,  and  contained  three  temples,  sacred 
to  Jupiter,  Minerva,  and  Juno.  The  capitol  was  m:\eral  times  burn- 
ed and  rebuilt.  It  was  adorned  with  great  magnificence,  and  wai 
the  scene  of  various  public  solemnities. 


GLOSSARY.  349 

Capuan  gate.  One  of  the  gates  of  ancient  Rome,  through  which 
passed  the  road  leading  to  Capua,  the  capital  of  Campania,  a  city 
of  great  wealth  and  luxury. 

Capuchins,  an  order  of  monks,  established  A.  D.  1528.  It  is  a  branch 
of  the  order  of  Franciscans,  or  Minorites,  (fratres  min ores,  lesser 
or  inferior  brethren  ;  so  called  by  their  founder,  in  token  of  humili- 
ty,) which  was  established  by  St.  Francis,  of  Assisi,  a  town  in  Italy, 
in  1208.  The  order  was  distinguished  by  vows  of  absolute  pover- 
ty, and  a  renunciation  of  all  worldly  learning  and  pleasure.  NTo 
beg  and  to  preach  was  to  be  the  duty  of  its  members.  The  whole 
number  of  Franciscans  and  Capuchins,  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
was  one  hundred  and  fifteen  thousand,  in  seven  thousand  convents. 
But  there  are  now  probably  not  more  than  one  third  of  that  num- 
ber, as  the  order  has  been  suppressed,  in  many  countries. 

Cardinal,  a  dignitary  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  next  in  dignity 
to  the  Pope,  and  having  the  right  to  vote  in  the  election  of  Pope. 
One  of  their  badges,  or  distinctive  articles  of  dress,  is  a  hat,  of  red 
or  violet,  with  silk  strings  and  tassels. 

Carlstadt,  a  contemporary  of  Luther,  and  a  zealous  and  violent  Re- 
former. His  real  name  was  Andrew  Bodenstein  ;  and  he  was  call- 
ed Carlstadt,  from  the  city  of  that  name,  in  Germany,  where  he  was 
born.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg,  (a  German 
town,  on  the  Elbe,  in  Saxony,)  and  was  included,  in  1520,  in  the 
bull  which  condemned  Luther.  He  boldly  appealed  from  the  Pope, 
and  declared  in  favor  of  the  marriage  of  priests.  But  his  violence 
in  instigating  the  people  to  destroy  the  altars,  pictures,  and  images 
of  the  saints,  in  the  churches,  caused  Luther  to  be  greatly  displeas- 
ed, and  led  to  a  division  between  them.  He  afterwards  commenc- 
ed a  controversy  with  Luther,  respecting  the  sacrament,  which  was 
carried  on  with  much  bitterness.  He  was  subsequently  reduced 
to  great  distress,  and  was  relieved  by  Luther,  whom,  however,  he 
treated  with  ingratitude.  He  died,  about  A.  D.  1542,  at  Basle, 
(Switzerland,)  where  he  had  been  professor  of  theology  for  ten 
years. 

Carthage,  an  ancient  wealthy  and  commercial  city,  in  Africa,  on  the 
Mediterranean,  founded  by  a  colony  from  Tyre,  in  Phoenicia.  It 
was,  for  a  longtime,  a  formidable  enemy  to  Rome,  and  several  wars 
were  carried  on  between  them,  which  ended  in  the  destruction  of 
Carthage  by  the  younger  Scipio,  B.  C.  146.  Few  traces  of  its  site 
now  remain. 

Carthaginian,  belonging  to,  or  an  inhabitant  of,  Carthage. 

Carystian,  belonging  to  Carystus,  (now  Carysto,)  a  town  on  the 
southerly  shore  of  Eubcea,  a  large  island  of  Greece,  lying  north 
easterly  from  Attica. 

Casemates,  vaults  under  the  main  wall  of  a  fortress,  especially  in  the 
bastions,  made  bomb-proof,  and  serving  to  defend  the  moat,  or 
trench,  outside  of  the  wall.  They  also  afford  facilities  in  making 
countermines,  (which  see,)  and  serve  as  places  for  keeping  cannon 
and  balls,  or  as  habitations  for  the  soldiers. 

Castanos,  a  distinguished  Spanish  general,  who  was  defeated  by  the 

30  G.  E 


350  GLOSSARY. 

French  in  a  battle  fought  in  November,  1808,  at  Tudela,  a  town  of 
Spain. 

Castile,  see  Aragonese. 

Catalonia,  a  province  in  the  northeast  part  of  Spain,  bordering  on 
France  and  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  not  remarkable  for  fertility  ; 
but  it  is  so  for  the  industry  of  its  inhabitants  and  its  advancement  in 
manufactures,  agriculture,  and  commerce. 

Cato,  Marcus  Porcius,  a  celebrated  Roman,  born  B.  C.  232  ;  re- 
markable for  his  temperance,  and  the  severity  of  his  morals.  He 
served  in  all  the  high  offices  of  state,  and  was  a  courageous  and  pru- 
dent general.  His  enmity  to  Scipio  commenced  in  early  life,  and 
lasted  till  death.  A  work  on  agriculture,  by  Cato,  is  still  extant. 
He  was  the  great-grandfather  of  that  Cato  who  was  the  contempora- 
ry of  Caesar  and  Cicero.  He  was  surnarned  the  Censor,  from  his 
having  exercised  that  office,  and  to  distinguish  him  from  other  mem- 
bers of  the  same  family. 

Caudine  Forks,  (now  Jlvellino,)  a  mountain  pass,  near  Caudium,  a 
town  of  Samnium.  See  page  43. 

Celano,  a  town  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  (Italy,)  near  a  lake  of  the 
same  name. 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,  a  sculptor,  engraver,  and  goldsmith,  born  at  Flor- 
ence, in  1500,  where  he  died  in  1570.  He  was  distinguished  for 
his  works  in  gold  and  silver.  His  life  was  an  eventful  one,  and  he 
has  left  an  account  of  it,  by  himself.  He  was  bold  and  honest,  but 
vain  and  quarrelsome. 

Censor,  the  title  of  a  magistrate  in  ancient  Rome,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  keep  a  register  of  the  number  of  people,  and  of  their  fortunes,  to 
regulate  the  taxes,  and  to  watch  over  the  public  morals  and  manners. 
Two  censors  were  elected  every  five  years. 

Ceres,  one  of  the  goddesses  of  ancient  mythology,  presiding  over  agri- 
culture. The  temple  of  Ceres  Jlmphiciyonis,  (the  Ceres  of  Amphic- 
tyon,)  at  Anthela,  was  probably  so  called,  from  a  tradition  that  her 
worship  was  established  there  by  Amphictyon. 

Chagan,  the  appellation  of  the  king  or  ruler  of  the  Avares  or  Avari, 
a  barbarous,  but  warlike  tribe,  who  formerly  flourished  in  Europe, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks, 
their  dominion  extended  over  what  is  now  Hungary,  Poland,  Prus- 
sia, and  the  eastern  regions  of  Germany. 

Chalcocondyles,  Nicholas,  of  Athens,  one  of  the  «  Byzantine  histori- 
ans,' as  they  are  called,  a  series  of  Greek  authors,  whose  works  re- 
late to  the  history  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  from  the  fourth  century 
till  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks. 

Chapter,  a  name  given  to  an  assembly  of  the  members  of  a  religious 
order,  or  of  church  dignitaries,  for  deliberating  on  their  affairs,  and 
regulating  their  discipline  ;  so  called,  because  one  or  more  chapters, 
containing  the  rules  of  the  order,  were  read  there. 

Charles  V.,  Emperor  of  (icniiriiiy  and  King  of  Spain,  (in  which  ca- 
pacity he  was  called  Charles  th.-  First,)  ,-i  contemporary  of  Henry 
tii  l.tghth  of  England  and  of  Franci*  the  First  of  France,  the  latter 
of  whom  was  his  rival  in  the  contest  for  the  imperial  throne.  He 
was  born  February  24,  1600.  In  1556,  he  resigned  his  thrones,  in 


GLOSSARY.  351 

favor  of  his  son  Philip,  and  died  in  a  monastery  to  which  he  had 
retired,  September  21,  1558.  For  an  account  of  the  war  which  he 
carried  on  against  Pope  Clement  the  Seventh,  see  page  234,  &c. 

Chilon,  or  Chilo,  a  philosopher  of  Sparta,  who  died  B.  C,  597. 

Chios,  (now  Scio,)  one  of  the  largest  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipel- 
ago, near  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 

Chosroes  II.,  (the  grandson  of  Chosroes  the  First,)  a  King  of  Persia, 
who  came  to  the  throne  A.  D.  590.  He  waged  war  upon  Heracli- 
us,  Emperor  of  the  East,  (the  Byzantine  empire,)  and  besieged  Con- 
stantinople, in  625.  Heraclius  penetrated  into  Persia,  and  destroyed 
the  palace  of  Chosroes,  who  was  dethroned  by  one  of  his  sons,  and 
imprisoned,  after  eighteen  of  his  sons  had  been  slain  before  his  eyes. 
He  died  in  628. 

Christendom.,  a.  term  applied  to  those  countries  (taken  collectively) 
where  Christianity  is  the  prevailing  religion. 

Cinque  Ports,  the  name  given,  by  way  of  distinction,  to  five  seaports 
of  England,  (so  called  from  the  French,  cinq,  five,)  to  which,  in  the 
reign  of  William  the  Conqueror,  peculiar  privileges  were  granted,  on 
certain  conditions  of  maritime  service.  These  five  ports  are  Dover, 
Sandwich,  Hithe,  Hastings,  and  Romney,  to  which  have  been  at- 
tached Winchelsea,  Rye,  and  Seaford.  They  have  now  lost  much 
of  their  old  importance  as  harbors,  but  still  retain  many  of  the  privi- 
leges with  which  they  were  formerly  endowed. 

Clrcumvallation,  the  formation  of  lines  of  fortification  round  a  place 
intended  to  be  besieged.  These  lines  are  sometimes  so  formed,  as 
to  afford  defence  both  from  an  assault  on  the  side  nearest  to  the 
besieged  town,  and  from  an  attack  on  the  opposite  side,  by  parties 
marching  to  relieve  the  place. 

Cissians,  a  people  anciently  inhabiting  the  region  just  north  of  the 
Gulf  of  Persia. 

Claudius,  (Quintus,)  a  Roman  historian,  who  lived  about  B.C.  70. 
None  of  his  works  are  extant.  There  were  many  other  celebrated 
Romans  of  the  name  of  Claudius,  which  was  common  to  a  large  and 
noble  family. 

Clement  VII.,  (Julius  of  Medici,)  was  made  Pope  in  1523,  and  died 
in  1534,  at  the  age  of  fifty-six.  For  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the 
difficulties  between  him  and  Charles  the  Fifth,  Emperor  of  Germa- 
ny, see  page  235,  and  for  the  history  of  the  most  eventful  period  in 
his  life,  see  the  whole  account  of  the  '  Sack  of  Rome,'  pages  237- 
269. 

Cleopatra,  a  Queen  of  Egypt,  very  celebrated  for  her  beauty,  wit,  and 
elegance  of  manners,  which  fascinated  Julius  Cssar,  and,  after  his 
death,  Mark  Antony,  who  was  now,  with  Octavius  Caesar  and  Le- 
pidus,  possessed  of  the  government  of  Rome.  War  broke  out  be- 
tween Octavius  and  Antony,  but  the  latter  was  too  much  engrossed 
with  the  allurements  of  the  Egyptian  Queen,  to  make  the  requisite 
preparations  for  the  war.  After  some  delay,  a  naval  battle  was 
fought  between  them,  at  Actiurn,  (which  see.)  After  Antony's 
death,  Cleopatra  killed  herself,  (B.  C.  30,)  by  the  bite  of  an  asp, 
that  she  might  not  fall  into  the  hands  of  Octavius,  and  be  carried  in 
triumph  to  Rome. 


352  GLOSSARY. 

Clerk,  a  term  generally  used,  in  former  times,  in  the  same  sense  in 
which  we  now  employ  the  word  clergyman,  and  still  so  used  in  le- 
gal instruments. 

Cockboat,  a  small  boat  belonging  to  a  ship. 

Columbus,  (Christopher,)  the  discoverer  of  America,  was  born  about 
1435,  and  died  in  1506.  For  his  Life,  see  <  THE  SCHOOL  LIBRA- 
RY,' Vol.  i.,  Larger  Series,  and  Vol.  xi.,  Juvenile  Series. 

Comitium,  a  part  of  the  Roman  Forum,  where  certain  assemblies  of 
the  people  were  held.  It  was  covered  with  a  roof,  and  adorned  with 
paintings,  statues,  and  columns. 

Confession,  Confessor,  see  Auricular  confession. 

Conscript  Fathers,  the  title  by  which  the  Roman  Senate  was  ad- 
dressed. The  origin  of  the  term  is  as  follows.  Those  whom  Bru- 
tus (see  page  347,)  chose  into  the  senate,  to  supply  the  places  of  the 
senators  whom  Tarquin  the  Proud  had  slain,  he  called  conscripti, 
that  is,  persons  written  or  enrolled  together  with  the  old  senators, 
who  were  styled  patres,  (fathers.)  Afterwards,  the  term  patres 
conscripti  (conscript  fathers)  was  extended  to  the  whole  body. 

Consistory,  the  council  of  state  under  the  Roman  emperors  ;  also  the 
highest  council  of  state  in  the  Papal  government.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  high  ecclesiastical  councils  in  Protestant  countries. 

Constance,  a  city  of  Switzerland,  on  Lake  Constance,  celebrated  as  the 
seat  of  the  council  held  A.  D.  1414-18,  at  which  Huss  and  Jerome 
of  Prague  were  condemned.  The  council  was  summoned  by  Sigis- 
mund,  Emperor  of  Germany,  for  the  purpose  of  settling  some  diffi- 
culties in  the  Roman  Church,  in  regard  to  the  choice  of  Pope,  and 
for  stopping  the  diffusion  of  the  doctrines  of  Huss.  It  was  a  numer- 
ous and  imposing  assembly.  The  German  Emperor,  the  Pope, 
twenty-six  princes,  one  hundred  and  forty  counts,  more  than  twenty 
cardinals,  seven  patriarchs,  twenty  archbishops,  ninety-one  bishops, 
six  hundred  other  clerical  dignitaries  and  doctors,  and  about  four 
hundred  priests,  were  present. 

Constantine,  and  Constantinople.  Constantino,  (the  Great,)  who 
was  Emperor  of  Rome  from  A.  D.  306  to  337,  laid,  in  329,  the 
foundations  of  a  new  capital  of  the  empire,  at  Byzantium,  in  Thrace, 
upon  the  Bosphorus.  This  city,  which  had  boon  almost  destroyed 
by  one  of  bin  predecessors,  he  rebuilt,  and  adorned  with  various 
public  buildings,  calling  it  after  his  own  name  ;  (in  GreoK,  A 
rtvov  nolig,  Constantinou  polis,  the  city  of  Constantino.)  It  was  the 
capital  and  residence  of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  till  its  conquest  by 
the  Turks,  in  1453,  (see  pages  111-140,)  at  which  time,  Constan- 
tine Palaologus  (the  last  of  the  Roman  and  Greek  emperors)  was 
Emperor,  having  succeeded  his  brother,  John  Palreologus,  in  1445. 
Constantinople  has  been,  since  that  conrjin^t,  ilio  capital  of  the 
Turki«h  sultans.  It  contains,  with  its  suburbs,  from  six  hundred 
thousand  to  ono  million  inhabitants. 

Consul,  the  title  of  the  two  lu^'lir-i  iii:i^i<trat«'s  in  tin-  Koiurin  republic, 
which  was  also  ret.-iinrd  by  rorlain  hii'li  olliror*  under  the  emperor*. 


The  jroviTiiiiiriit  |,\  ronsuls  continued,  with  slight  interruptions, 
from  B.  C.  50!)  to  B.  C.  59.  Two  consuls  were  elected  annually 
The  word  signifies  adviser,  counsellor. 


GLOSSARY.  353 

Convent,  a  house  devoted  to  the  rrsidence  of  monks  or  nuns  ;  called, 
in  the  former  case,  a  monastery  ;  in  the  latter,  a  nunnery. 

Coos,  or  Cos,  (now  Stanco,  and  by  corruption  Lanjo  or  Lango,  as  it 
is  called  on  page  180,)  an  island  in  the  Archipelago,  about  twelve 
miles  from  the  shore  of  Asia,  and  about  seventy  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence. 

Corinthians,  inhabitants  of  Corinth,  a  city  of  Greece,  upon  the  isth- 
mus of  Corinth,  (which  separates  the  Morea  from  the  main  conti- 
nent.) It  was  anciently  a  city  of  great  magnificence  and  luxury, 
but  only  a  few  ruins  of  its  former  splendor  now  remain.  There  was 
formerly  a  flourishing  Christian  church  here,  to  which  St.  Paul  wrote 
two  Epistles. 

Cornelian  family,  an  illustrious  family  of  Rome,  the  different  branch- 
es of  which  bore  the  name  of  Cornelius.  The  Scipios  were  of  this 
family. 

Corps  de  reserve,  (French,)  a  body  of  troops  kept  out  of  battle,  and 
reserved,  in  order  to  be  brought  up,  if  the  troops  in  action  are  beat- 
en, or  thrown  into  disorder,  or  cannot  follow  up  their  victory. 

Corsica,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  about  fifty  miles  from  Italy, 
and  one  hundred  from  France.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  a  native 
of  Ajaccio,  in  this  island,  and  is  hence  frequently  spoken  of  as  '  the 
Corsican.' 

Cortege,  (French,)  a  train,  retinue. 

Counterbattery,  see  Battery. 

Countermine.  In  besieging  a  fortress,  subterranean  passages,  called 
mines,  are  sometimes  dug  under  the  walls  or  buildings  by  the  besieg- 
ers, for  the  purpose  of  blowing  them  up  by  gunpowder.  The  troops 
employed  for  this  purpose  are  called  sappers  and  miners.  The 
mines  of  the  fortress  itself,  made  to  oppose  the  subterranean  move- 
ments of  the  enemy,  are  called  countermines.  The  explosion  of 
powder  in  a  mine  is  termed  springing  a  mine. 

Counterscarp,  the  outer  slope  of  the  ditch  which  surrounds  a  fortifica- 
tion ;  or  that  slope  nearest  the  field.  The  term  is  sometimes  applied 
to  the  covered  way  and  the  glacis.  The  covered  way  is  a  space  of 
ground  on  the  edge  of  the  ditch,  toward  the  field,  ranging  round  the 
works.  Outside  of  the  covered  way,  rises  a  breastwork  of  earth, 
which  descends,  by  a  gentle  slope,  called  the  glacis,  toward  the  field. 

Crete,  see  Candiotes. 

Criton,  a  friend  and  disciple  of  Socrates. 

Crossbow,  a  weapon  for  shooting,  much  used  in  war  before  the  inven- 
tion of  firearms.  It  is  a  strong  wooden  or  steel  bow,  fastened  to  a 
stock,  crosswise,  and  shot  oft'  by  a  trigger  fixed  to  the  stock. 

Curtain,  see  Bastion. 

Cyprus,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  south  of  Asia  Minor,  famous, 
in  ancient  times,  for  Its  fertility  and  its  fine  climate.  The  island  was 
in  the  possession  of  the  Venetians  from  1473  till  1571,  when  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  its  present  rulers. 

Cythera,  (now  Cerigo,)  a  rocky  island  near  the  southern  shore  of 
Greece. 

Cyzicus,  formerly  an  island,  now  a  peninsula,  on  the  south  side  of  the 
sea  of  Marmora. 

30* 


354  GLOSSARY. 

Darius,  the  name  of  several  Persian  kings.  The  one  referred  to  in 
this  Volume  is  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  and  father  of  Xerxes, 
who  reigned  about  B.  C.  500. 

Delf,  (properly  Delft,)  a  city  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  province  of 
South  Holland,  between  Rotterdam  and  Leyden,  containing  about 
fourteen  thousand  inhabitants. 

Delos,  (now  Dili,  Sdili,  or  Ilegi,)  an  island  in  the  Archipelago,  cele- 
brated, in  ancient  times,  as  the  birthplace  of  Apollo  and  Diana.  It 
contained  a  magnificent  temple,  dedicated  to  Apollo,  erected  at  the 
joint  expense  of  all  the  Grecian  states,  and  was  celebrated  for  its 
oracle.  The  island  is  now  covered  with  the  ruins  of  its  ancient 
works  of  architecture. 

Demons,  spirits  intermediate  between  gods  and  mortals  ;  conveying  to 
men  the  commands  of  the  gods  ;  to  the  gods,  the  prayers  of  men. 
Each  mortal  was  supposed  to  have  a  particular  demon,  who  accom- 
panied him  till  death.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  dalpuv, 
daimon,  intelligent,  wise.  Socrates  and  the  other  Grecian  philoso 
phers  believed  in  these  beings  called  demons. 

Depot,  (depot,  French,)  a  place  of  deposit,  whether  of  munitions  of 
war,  troops,  or  merchandise. 

Dervish,  (or  dervise,)  the  name  of  a  class  of  religious  persons  in  Asia, 
denoting  the  same  among  the  Mohammedans  as  monk  among  Chris- 
tians. 

Dictator,  a  magistrate  of  ancient  Rome,  appointed  only  upon  extraor- 
dinary occasions,  and  holding  his  office  for  a  limited  time.  Upon 
the  occurrence  of  any  emergency,  such  as  the  near  approach  of  an 
enemy,  or  the  like,  when  a  greater  degree  of  energy  in  the  govern- 
ment was  required  than  was  consistent  with  the  limited  powers  of 
the  regular  magistrates,  a  dictator  was  appointed,  with  almost  abso- 
lute power,  who  held  his  office  until  the  period  of  national  danger 
was  past.  Sometimes,  a  dictator  was  created  for  some  purposes  of 
form,  such  as  holding  an  election.  The  officer  next  in  rank  to  the 
dictator  was  called  master  of  the  horse,  and  held  his  office  only  so 
long  as  the  dictatorship  continued. 

Diet,  the  grand  council  of  the  German  empire.     (See  pages  141, 142.) 

Dii-an,  the  highest  council  of  state  among  the  Turks  ;  so  called  from 
the  council-chamber  where  the  ministers  of  state  meet  ;  and  that 
derives  its  name  from  the  divan  or  couch  which  surrounds  it. 

Doric  dialect.  The  language  of  ancient  Greece  was  marked  by  four 
principal  varieties  or  dialects,  the  Attic,  Ionic,  Doric,  and  ^Eolic, 
prevailing  in  different  parts  of  Greece  and  her  colonies.  The  Doric 
dialect  was  broad  and  rough,  yet  possessed  of  a  certain  dignity  ;  the 
Ionic  was  delicate  and  smooth.  The  Attic,  being  used  in  Athens, 
the  seat  of  refinement  and  science,  became,  at  last,  the  prevailing 
dialect. 

Dorscl,  a  pannier  ;  a  basket  or  bag,  one  of  which  hangs  on  either  side 
of  a  beast  of  burden,  for  the  reception  of  things  of  small  bulk. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  a  distin^uislird  Knulish  navigator  and  naval  com- 
mander, who  waa  born  in  1545,  and  dird  in  i.'.nti.  He  undertook 
various  privateering  expeditions  against  the  Spanish  possessions  in 
America,  and  being  successful,  wns  furnished  by  Queen  Elizabeth 


GLOSSARY.  356 

with  ships  and  means  for  further  expeditions.  He  commanded,  aa 
vice-admiral  of  the  British  fleet,  in  the  conflict  with  the  Spanish  Ar- 
mada, in  15S8. 

Ducas,  one  of  the  Byzantine  historians,  (see  Chalcocondyles,)  who, 
after  the  conquest  of  Constantinople,  wrote  a  history  of  the  empire, 
from  A.  D.  1341  to  1462. 

Ebro,  a  river  of  Spain,  flowing  into  the  Mediterranean. 

Echecraies,  a  disciple  of  Socrates. 

Edile,  a  Roman  magistrate,  of  secondary  rank,  having  charge  of  pub- 
lic games,  public  buildings,  and  of  the  market. 

Eisenach,  a  town  in  Germany,  near  the  mountains  of  Thuringia. 

Elector,  a  title  given  to  certain  princes  of  the  German  empire,  who 
elected  the  Emperor.  The  empire  ended  in  1806.  Under  the  pres- 
ent German  confederacy,  the  title  is  held  by  but  one  prince,  and  has 
lost  its  original  meaning. 

Ems,  a  town  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  (Germany,)  remarkable  for  its 
mineral  waters. 

Ennius,  (Quintus,)  a  Latin  poet,  who  flourished  about  B.  C.  200,  and 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  elder  Scipio  Africanus.  Of  his  nu- 
merous works,  only  fragments  remain. 

Entlibuch,  a  Swiss  town  in  the  canton  of  Lucerne. 

Entrails,  the  interior  parts  of  the  body.  The  ancient  soothsayers  in- 
spected particularly  the  liver,  and  other  organs  in  the  cavity  of  the 
chest,  which,  as  well  as  the  intestines,  are  comprehended  under  the 
above  term. 

Epirot,  an  inhabitant  of  Epirus,  a  province  in  the  northwest  part  of 
Greece,  now  a  part  of  Albania. 

Equinoxes,  those  two  periods  of  the  year,  when  the  days  and  nights 
are  of  the  same  length  throughout  the  globe. 

Etruria,  (now  Tuscany,)  a  region  of  ancient  Italy,  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean, bounded  southerly  by  the  Tiber.  The  inhabitants,  called 
Etrurians,  or  Etruscans,  (now  Tuscans,)  were  remarkable  for  their 
skill  in  the  useful  and  elegant  arts. 

Eumenes,  a  King  of  Pergarnus,  (a  kingdom  in  Asia  Minor,)  who 
reigned  from  B.  C.  263  to  241,  and  was  an  ally  of  the  Romans. 

Euripides,  one  of  the  three  most  eminent  Greek  tragic  poets,  born 
B.  C.  480,  on  the  day  of  the  battle  of  Salamis,  at  which  JEschylus 
fought.  His  tragedies  (of  which  nineteen  remain  out  of  eighty  or 
ninety)  were  remarkable  for  brilliancy  and  beauty,  but  somewhat 
lax  in  the  tone  of  their  morality,  though  abounding  in  graceful  moral 
sentences.  He  was  a  few  years  younger  than  Sophocles,  and  was 
his  rival  for  the  prizes  at  the  public  games. 

Fasces,  see  Lictors. 

Fascines,  bundles  of  boughs,  twigs,  &c.,  about  sixteen  feet  long  and 
one  foot  in  diameter,  used  in  sieges,  for  filling  up  ditches  which  are 
to  be  crossed. 

Felucca,  a  large  boat,  like  a  brigantine,  (which  see.) 

Feodary,  (plural  feodaries,)  one  who  holds  an  estate  under  tenure 
(or  condition)  of  performing  certain  services  to  a  superior  lord,  such 
aa  attending  upon  him  in  war,  with  a  certain  number  of  armed  vas- 
sals, &c. 


356  GLOSSARY. 

Ferdinand  V.,  of  Aragon,  the  father  of  Catharine,  wife  of  Henry  the 
Eighth,  of  England.  He  was  born  in  1453.  He  married  Isabella, 
Q,ueen  of  Castile,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  union  of  the 
different  Spanish  kingdoms.  The  reign  of  these  princes  is  remarka- 
ble for  the  discovery  of  America,  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion, and  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain.  Ferdinand  pos- 
sessed many  great  qualities,  but  was  bigoted  and  tyrannical. 

Feudal.  The  feudal  system,  as  it  is  called,  prevailed  in  Europe 
during  the  middle  ages,  (from  the  fifth  to  the  fifteenth  century.) 
According  to  this  system,  estates  were  held  upon  certain  conditions 
of  service.  (See  Feodary.)  The  nobleman  was  the  feodary  or 
vassal  of  his  prince  ;  the  soldier  or  the  farmer,  of  his  lord.  By  feu- 
dal notions  is  meant  the  opinions  current  during  the  times  when  this 
system  prevailed. 

Filing,  a  military  phrase,  which  generally  means,  moving  in  a  single 
line,  and  not  abreast  ;  but  may  be  used  simply  to  signify  march- 
ing. 

Firepot,  a  small  earthen  pot,  containing  a  grenade,  (which  see,)  cov- 
ered with  powder.  The  pot  is  covered  with  parchment,  on  which 
are  placed  two  lighted  matches.  When  the  pot  is  thrown,  it  is 
broken,  the  powder  is  fired,  and  the  grenades  explode. 

Flank,  in  fortification,  is  that  part  of  a  work,  which  affords  a  lateral 
defence  to  another.  In  a  bastion,  the  flanks  are  those  lines  which 
join  the  main  wall. 

Fleming,  (plural  Flemings,  or  Flemish,)  a  native  of  Flanders,  a  prov- 
ince in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Netherlands,  bordering  on  France 
and  on  the  German  Ocean. 

Florentine,  an  inhabitant  or  native  of  Florence,  the  capital  of  the  grand 
duchy  of  Tuscany,  (Italy,)  a  city  of  seventy-five  thousand  inhabit- 
ants, situated  on  the  River  Arno,  and  remarkable  for  its  valuable 
collections  of  works  of  art. 

Flulen,  or  Fluelen,  a  village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Schwytz. 
Here  is  William  Tell's  chapel,  reTerred  to  on  page  85. 

Foragers,  parties  of  soldiers,  sent  out  to  obtain  supplies  of  fodder  for 
the  horses,  or  provisions  for  the  army. 

Forum,  among  the  Romans,  meant  nny  open  public  place  where  mar- 
kets and  courts  of  justice  were  held.  The  great  Forum  in  Rome 
was  a  splendid  place,  used  for  assemblies  of  the  people,  for  trials, 
.•in. I  for  the  transaction  of  public  business.  It  was  oblong,  was  sur- 
rounded with  porticoes,  and  adorned  with  columns  and  statues.  It 
ia  now  almost  a  waste,  but  is  covered  with  the  ruins  of  its  ancient 
magnificence. 

Fosse,  (plural/o*m,)  a  ditch,  particularly  that  which  surrounds  a  for- 
tified place. 

I  /.,  King  of  France,  born  A.  1).  149-1,  and  died  A.  D.  1547. 
II'  was  the  contemporary  of  Charles  the  Fifth,  of  Spain,  and  Henry 
the  Eighth,  of  England  ;  was  an  unsuccessful  competitor  with  :li<- 
former  for  the  imperial  throne  of  (ii-rmany,  and  was  afterwards  al- 
most continually  at  war  with  him.  IIo  was  a  Prince  of  a  noble  and 
enterprising  spirit,  remarkable  for  his  love  and  protection  of  litera- 
ture and  the  arts,  and  possessed  every  qualification  for  reigning  well, 


GLOSSARY.  357 

had.  he  been  content  to  reign  in  peace,  instead  of  being  engaged  in 
almost  perpetual  wars. 

Franciscans,  see  Capuchin. 

French  Academy,  see  Academy. 

French  Revolution,  the  overthrow  of  royal  power  in  France,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  republic,  in  1792.  The  destruction  of  the  Bas- 
tille, (a  fortified  prison,)  the  deposition  and  execution  of  King  Louis 
the  Sixteenth,  and  the  massacres  of  the  royalists  during  the  period 
called  the  reign  of  terror,  are  among  the  most  prominent  acts  of  this 
great  tragic  drama. 

Freybnrg,  or  Friburg,  a  town  of  Baden,  (in  Germany,)  formerly 
capital  of  the  Breisgau,  (which  see,)  containing  about  ten  thousand 
inhabitants. 

Fuller,  (Thomas,)  an  English  historian  and  divine,  best  known  for  his 
*  Worthies  of  England,'  a  biographical  work,  full  of  information  and 
anecdote,  written  in  a  quaint  style.  His  other  writings  were  nu- 
merous. He  died  in  1661. 

Galata,  the  name  of  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Constantinople. 

Galleases,  the  largest  sort  of  galleys,  formerly  employed  by  the  Ve- 
netians, being  about  one  hundred  and  sixty-two  feet  long  and  thir- 
ty-two wide,  having  three  masts,  and  sixty-four  oars,  each  one 
managed  by  six  or  seven  slaves,  who  were  chained  to  it. 

Galley,  a  low,  flat-built  vessel,  much  in  use  on  the  Mediterranean, 
furnished  with  one  deck,  and  navigated  with  sails  and  oars. 

Galliot,  a  small,  swift  galley,  designed  for  chase.  The  rowers  are 
soldiers,  and  each  has  a  musket  beside  him. 

G allow glasses,  a  kind  of  soldiers  among  the  Irish,  in  former  times. 

Gaul,  (Latin  Gallia,)  the  ancient  name  of  France.  Gaul,  (plural 
Gauls,)  also  signifies  a  native  of  Gallia.  (See  Camillus.) 

Gaunt,  an  antiquated  mode  of  writing  Ghent,  which  see. 

Gennadius,  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  at  the  time  of  its  con- 
quest by  the  Turks.  He  died  about  A.  D.  1460. 

Genoese,  natives  of  Genoa,  a  dukedom  (formerly  a  republic)  in  the 
northwest  of  Italy,  on  the  Mediterranean,  having  a  capital  city  of 
the  same  name.  In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  the 
Genoese  were  the  most  flourishing  commercial  people  of  Europe. 

Genseric,  a  King  of  the  Vandals,  (which  see,)  who  invaded  Italy, 
A.  D.  455,  and  plundered  the  city  of  Rome,  taking  possession  of 
all  the  treasures  and  works  of  art  which  had  been  left  by  the  Goths, 
He  was  prevailed  upon  to  spare  the  city  from  slaughter  and  confla- 
gration. He  was  a  prince  of  great  ability  and  bravery. 

George  I.  was  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1714,  till  his  death,  in 
1727,  at  the  age  of  sixty-eight.  He  was  a  great-grandson  of  James 
the  First  of  England,  was  a  German  by  birth,  and  was  Elector  of 
Hanover,  (now  a  kingdom  of  Germany,)  both  before  and  after  his 
accession  to  the  English  throne.  He  was  a  plain,  simple,  and  sen- 
sible, man. 

German  mile,  about  four  English  miles. 

Gersau,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Unterwalden.  It  is 
fhe  capital  of  a  district  of  about  six  square  miles,  which  was  former- 
ly independent,  and  the  smallest  free  state  in  Europe. 


358  GLOSSARY. 

Ghent,  the  capital  of  East  Flanders,  (one  of  the  provinces  of  the  Neth 
erlands,)  a  city  of  about  sixty  thousand  inhabitants,  anoVformerly  of 
great  importance  and  wealth. 

Ghibelline.  A  war  was  carried  on  in  Italy  and  Germany  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  between  two  parties,  or  factions, 
called  the  Guelphs  and  the  Ghibellines ;  the  former  of  which 
fought  for  the  supremacy  of  the  Popes  and  the  independence  of  the 
cities  of  Italy,  and  the  latter  supported  the  cause  of  the  Emperors 
of  Germany. 

Glaris,  or  Glarus,  a  canton  of  Switzerland,  with  a  capital  town  of 
the  same  name. 

Goths,  a  German  tribe,  from  the  shores  of  the  JJaltic,  who,  by  suc- 
cessive conquests,  established,  in  the  fourth  century,  a  great  king- 
dom, and  became  most  formidable  foes  both  to  the  Eastern  and  the 
Western  empire  of  the  Romans.  They  took  and  plundered  Rome 
under  their  King,  Alaric,  A.  D.  410,  and  again  under  Totila,  (u-hich 
see.) 

Gottlieben,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  three  miles  from  Constance,  where 
Huss  was  confined  in  1415. 

Gouda,  a  city  of  the  Netherlands,  on  a  branch  of  the  Rhine,  now  a 
place  of  considerable  trade,  and  remarkable  for  a  large  and  hand- 
some church,  the  painted-glass  windows  of  which  are  supposed  to 
be  the  finest  in  Europe. 

Gracchus,  Tiberius  Sempronius,  (see  pages  63  and  69,)  was  the 
son-in-law  of  Scipio  Africanus,  and  father  of  the  two  celebrated 
Gracchi,  Tiberius  and  Caius.  The  former  of  these  early  made 
himself  conspicuous  in  military  service.  He  then  became  tribune 
of  the  people,  and  bent  all  his  efforts  to  advance  his  plans  for  the 
improvement  of  their  condition.  These  plans  drew  upon  him  the 
enmity  of  the  senate  and  of  the  patrician  party  ;  and  he  was  slain 
in  a  qivil  tumult,  B.  C.  133.  The  career  and  fate  of  Caius  were 
similar.  These  brothers  were  educated  by  their  mother,  Cornelia, 
a  woman  of  great  ability  and  excellence,  the  daughter  of  Scipio, 
who,  when  requested  to  show  her  jewels,  produced  her  two  sons, 
saying,  *  *  These  are  my  jewels,  the  only  ones  of  which  I  can  boast. ' ' 

Grand  Signior,  a  title  of  the  Sultan  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 

Grand  Cross,  one  of  the  titles  of  honor,  in  the  orders  of  Knighthood. 

Gratz,  the  chief  town  in  Stiria,  (a  province  of  Austria,)  containing  a 
population  of  thirty-four  thousand. 

Grenada,  or  grenade,  a  bomb  of  small  diameter,  (see  Bombardment,) 
\vLich  is  either  thrown  by  hand,  or  discharged  from  cannon,  accord- 
ing to  its  size. 

Hacrlem,  a  city  of  the  Netherlands,  capital  of  the  province  of  North 
Holland,  about  three  miles  from  the  sea.  Population  about  twenty 
thousand. 

Halberd,  a  battleaxe  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  long  pole. 

Ilalfmoon,  an  outwork  of  a  fortification,  composed  of  two  faces  uni- 
ting in  a  projecting  ungle,  the  entrance  to  which,  from  tho  fortress, 
U  in  the  shape  of  a  halfmoon.  It  i->  now  called  a  Jtarclin. 

Hannibal,  a  r.drhratfd  Carthaginian  general,  and  a  most  formidable 
17  of  the  Romans,  born  B.  C.  243,  and  died  B.  C.  183.  Hie 


GLOSSARY.  359 

passage  o\*t  the  Alps,  for  the  invasion  of  Italy,  in  Winter,  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  military  exploits  of  antiquity.  He  main- 
tained an  army  for  sixteen  years  in  Italy,  and  Rome  itself  was 
once  in  imminent  danger  of  falling  into  his  hands.  He  was  recal- 
led, however,  by  the  Carthaginian  senate,  to  Africa,  and  was  there 
defeated  by  Scipio  Africanus.  Obliged  by  the  machinations  of  his 
enemies  to  leave  Carthage,  he  went  successively  to  the  courts  of 
two  Asiatic  kings,  and  at  last  poisoned  himself,  to  prevent  his  being 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 

Hapsburg,  or  Habsburg,  a  small  place  in  Switzerland,  in  the  district 
of  Aargau.  The  proprietors  of  it  became  Counts  of  Hapsburg,  and 
gradually  enlarged  their  territory.  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg  was  cho- 
sen Emperor  of  Germany,  A.  D.  1273.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
present  reigning  house  of  Austria. 

Harem,  among  the  Mussulmans,  signifies  the  women's  apartments, 
which  no  man  but  the  husband  is  permitted  to  enter. 

Harquebusiers,  see  Jlrquebusiers. 

Hellespont,  (improperly  called  the  Dardanelles,  from  two  ancient 
castles  at  its  entrance,  one  on  each  side,)  a  strait  between  Europe 
and  Asia,  connecting  the  sea  of  Marmora  with  the  Archipelago. 

Helot,  a  Spartan  slave.  The  helots  did  not  belong  to  individuals, 
but  were  the  property  of  the  stale,  and  assigned  to  their  several 
masters.  They  were  sometimes  employed  in  military  service,  in 
cases  of  necessity.  Agriculture  and  all  mechanical  arts,  at  Sparta, 
were  in  their  hands. 

Henneburg,  formerly  a  principality  in  Germany,  now  divided  among 
other  states. 

Henry  VIII. ,  King  of  England,  was  born  A.  D.  1491,  and  came  to 
the  throne  in  1509.  His  reign  is  remarkable  for  the  spread  of  the 
principles  of  the  Reformation,  in  England,  which  was  in  a  great 
measure  owing  to  the  breaking  off,  by  Henry,  of  his  allegiance  to 
the  Pope.  The  Pope  had  excommunicated  the  King,  (that  is,  de- 
clared him  to  be  deprived  of  the  privileges  of  Christian  commu- 
nion,) on  account  of  his  marriage  with  Ann  Boleyn  ;  and  Henry 
declared  himself  the  supreme  head  of  the  English  Church.  He 
was  passionate  and  intolerant,  inhuman  and  arbitrary,  fond  of 
power,  and  inconstant  in  his  affections.  He  died  in  1547. 

Herald,  an  officer  whose  business  it  is  (among  other  duties)  to  reg- 
ulate and  arrange  public  ceremonies.  In  ancient  times,  it  was  his 
duty,  also,  to  proclaim  war  and  peace. 

Hercules,  a  celebrated  hero  of  antiquity,  fabled  to  be  a  son  of  Jupiter, 
by  Alcmena,  a  mortal  mother.  The  ancient  poets  embodied  in 
Hercules  the  ideas  of  personal  strength,  perseverance,  and  valor. 
After  achieving  a  series  of  the  most  remarkable  '« labors,"  he  was 
numbered,  after  death,  with  the  gods.  His  death  was  caused  by 
putting  on  a  poisoned  dress  sent  him  by  his  wife  Dejanira,  (who 
was  jealous  ;)  and  while  suffering  from  the  effects  of  this  poison, 
he  caused  a  funeral  pile  to  be  constructed,  ascended  it,  and  was 
consumed. 

Hexameter  verses,  in  ancient  poetry,  are  verses  consisting  of  six  meas- 
ures, or  feet,  each  of  which  consists  of  two  or  three  syllables. 


360  GLOSSARY. 

Hindoos,  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  the  East  Indies  ;  a  very  ancient 
nation,  distinguished  for  their  humanity,  gentleness,  and  industry, 
and  remarkable  for  their  civilization,  and  their  advancement  in  let- 
ters and  arts,  at  a  time  when  most  other  nations  of  Asia,  and  even 
Europe,  had  made  very  little  progress  in  them. 
Hippodrome,  see  Atmeidan. 
Holy  Land,  see  Palestine. 

Homer,  an  ancient  Greek  poet,  the  most  distinguished  of  all  antiquity, 
who  lived  about  the  ninth  century  before  Christ.  His  great  poems 
are,  the  « Iliad,'  describing  the  most  stirring  scenes  of  the  war  of  the 
Greeks  against  Troy,  and  the  «  Odyssey,'  the  adventures  of  Ulys- 
ses, one  of  the  Grecian  heroes.  The  phrase,  Homeric  grace,  sig- 
nifies a  grace  like  that  of  Homer,  whose  poems  are  full  of  graceful- 
ness and  beauty. 

Host,  (from  the  Latin  hostia,  a  victim,)  signifies,  in  the  Roman  Cath 
olic  Church,  the  wafer,  or  bread,  used  in  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  The  "elevation  of  the  host"  is  the  raising  of  it, 
and  of  the  cup  containing  the  wine,  to  receive  the  homage  of  the 
people,  as  the  body  and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Hyllus,  a  son  of  Hercules,  and  mentioned  in  this  Volume  as  one  of 
the  ancestors  of  Leonidas,  King  of  Sparta.     He  was  killed  in  single 
combat,  by  Echemus,  King  of  Arcadia. 
Imam,  a  Turkish  priest. 

Imperialist,  one  attached  to  the  party  of  an  Emperor. 
Indulgence,  the  pardon  or  remission  of  sin,  which,  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  system,  the  Church  claims  power  to  grant.  The  sale  of 
indulgences  was  one  of  the  causes  which  led  to  the  Reformation. 
The  Popes,  to  replenish  an  exhausted  treasury,  sold  them,  not  only 
as  pardons  for  sins  committed,  but  as  permits  for  sins  to  be  convuit- 
ted  ;  and  this  flagrant  abuse  awakened  the  indignation  of  hnss, 
Luther,  and  all  the  early  Reformers. 

Infanta,  the  title  of  the  princes  of  the  royal  families  of  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal. 

Infidel,  a  term  applied  by  the  Mohammedans  to  all  who  do  not  em- 
brace the  religion  of  Mohammed,  including  Christians  ;  by  Chris- 
tians, it  is  applied  to  all  who  do  not  believe  in  Christianity. 
Ingot,  a  small  bar  of  metal.     Gold  and  silver  are  usually  cast  in  in- 
gots. 

Interregnum,  (from  the  Latin  inter,  between,  and  rcgnum,  reign,) 
the  period  intervening  between  two  reigns,  where  the  succession  is 
interrupted.  The  Romans  employed  the  term  while  the  republic 
was  in  existence,  to  denote  any  interruption  in  the  regular  succes- 
sion of  chief  magistrates.  The  magistrate,  ruling  during  the  interval, 
was  called  an  interrex,  (from  inter,  and  rex,  a  king.) 
Ionic  dialect,  see  Doric  dialect. 

Islam,  or  hlumism,  •*  the  true  faith,"  according  to  the  Mohamme- 
dans ;  the  religion  of  Mussulmans,  or  believers  in  tin-  divine  apos- 
tleship  of  Mohammed. 

rics,  a  corps  of  Turkish  soldiers,  forming  the  flower  of  the 
Sultan's  troops  and  his  body-guard.  It  was  formed  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  abolished  in  1826.  The  Janiza- 


GLOSSARY.  361 

nes  had  a  peculiar  discipline  and  organization ,  and  were  a  most  for* 
midable  soldiery. 

Jerusalem,  a  celebrated  city  of  Palestine,  long  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Jews,  and  the  seat  of  their  sacred  temple.  It  is 
now  under  the  government  of  the  Turkish  pacha  of  Damascus.  It 
contains  a  population  variously  estimated  at  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
thousand  inhabitants,  one  half  of  whom  are  Mohammedans,  one 
sixth  Jews,  and  the  rest  Christians.  Numerous  pilgrims  still  resort 
to  « the  Holy  City.'  In  '  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,'  which 
has  been  a  consecrated  spot  for  fifteen  hundred  years,  is  shown  the 
pretended  '  tomb  of  Christ,'  in  a  richly-ornamented  subterranean 
apartment. 

John  PalfBologus,  see  Constantinople. 

Juno,  in  ancient  mythology,  the  sister  and  wife  of  Jupiter,  and,  next 
to  him,  the  most  exalted  and  powerful  of  the  gods. 

Junta,  (Spanish,  an  assembly,)  a  high  council  of  state,  in  Spain.     la 

1808,  besides  a  central  junta,  there  was,  in  every  province,   not 
subjugated  by  the  French,  a  provincial  junta,  subject  to  the  cen 
tral  one. 

Knight,  one  who  has  received  the  honor  of  knighthood,  which  was, 
in  the  middle  ages,  the  highest  rank  of  chivalry  ;  and,  in  the  later 
periods  of  that  institution,  was  only  conferred  on  men  of  noble 
birth. 

Kon'igsfelden,  a  Swiss  bailiwick,  in  the  canton  of  Berne. 

Kussnacht,  a  town  of  Schwytz,  in  Switzerland ,  near  which  is  a  chap- 
el, erected  on  the  spot  where  Tell  slew  Gessler. 

Lacedaemonians,  the  inhabitants  of  Lacedcemon,  or  Sparta,  one  of 
the  most  powerful  states  of  ancient  Greece,  situated  in  the  south- 
westerly part  of  Peloponnesus.  The  city  of  Sparta,  or  Lacedasmon, 
which  gave  its  name  to  the  state,  was  properly  the  capital  of  Laco- 
nia,  (the  name  of  the  whole  district  governed  by  the  Spartans.) 
The  Spartans  were  remarkable  for  valor,  simplicity,  and  contempt 
of  luxury  ;  were  early  inured  to  fatigue  and  exposure,  and  taught 
to  endure  pain  with  firmness.  They  despised  learning,  and  exclu- 
ded it  from  the  education  of  the  young. 

Landamman,  the  highest  magistrate  of  a  Swiss  canton  ;  the  governor 
of  a  district. 

Landgrave,  a  German  title  of  nobility  ;  a  count. 

Landsknecht,  (German,)  a  common  foot  soldier. 

Landvogt,  (see  Bailiff.) 

Lango,  or  Lanjo,  a  corruption  of  Stanco,  the  modern  name  of  the 
Island  of  Coos  or  Cos,  which  see. 

Language,  a  division  of  the  order  of  Knights  Hospitallers,  for  an  ex- 
planation of  which,  see  page  160. 

Lasnes,  (usually  spelt  Lannes,)  John,  a  distinguished  French  officei 
in  the  armies  of  Napoleon,  born  in  1769.  He  was  a  favorite  of  the 
Emperor,  and  was  created  Marshal  of  the  empire  and  Duke  of  Mon- 
tebello.  He  obtained  a  brilliant  renown  in  the  war  in  Spain.  He 
lost  both  legs  by  a  cannon  shot,  in  the  campaign  against  Austria  in 

1809,  and  died  in  a  few  days. 

Latins,  the  people  of  Latiu7ii,-an  important  country  of  ancient  Italy, 
31  G.   E. 


362  GLOSSARY. 

on  the  Mediterranean,  south  of  the  Tiber,  which  separa  ed  it  from 
Etruria. 

Legatine  court,  a  court  at  which  a  legate  presides. 

Lemnos,  (now  Stalimene,)  a  fertile  island,  containing  about  one  hun- 
dred and  forty-seven  square  miles,  in  the  most  northerly  part  of  the 
Archipelago,  or  JEgesm  sea. 

Lenzburg,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in  the  district  of  Aargau,  capital  of 
a  bailiwick,  and  now  a  place  of  some  trade. 

Leon,  (of  Salamis,)  a  man  eminent  for  his  blameless  life,  but  whose 
political  opinions  made  him  obnoxious  to  the  Thirty  Tyrants  who 
then  (B.  C.  403-401)  ruled  Athens.  In  order  to  involve  Socrates 
with  him,  the  latter  was  appointed  one  of  five,  who  were  directed 
to  proceed  to  Salamis,  seize  Leon,  and  bring  him  to  Athens.  This 
order,  Socrates  disobeyed,  as  contrary  to  law. 

Leonard  of  Chios,  the  author  of  a  history  of  the  capture  of  Constan- 
tinople by  the  Turks. 

Leonidas.  For  an  account  of  this  Spartan  hero,  see  page  13.  The 
list  of  his  ancestors  there  given  comprises  the  regular  succession  of 
kings  of  Sparta  to  Aristodemus,  and  thence  of  the  descendants  of 
Hercules,  conquerors  of  Peloponnesus,  to  Hercules  himself. 

Lepanto,  a  seaport  town  in  Greece,  situated  on  a  bay,  anciently  the 
gulf  of  Corinth,  now  the  gulf  of  Lepanto. 

Leyden,  see  page  288. 

Libation,  (literally,  a  pouring  out,)  an  offering  to  the  gods,  of  meat 
or  drink,  a  kind  of  sacrifice.  At  feasts  and  domestic  meals,  among 
the  ancients,  a  portion  of  food  was  often  burned,  and  some  wine 
poured  out,  as  a  libation  to  the  gods.  Hence  the  allusion  of  Soc- 
rates on  page  38. 

Lichtenstein,  now  a  sovereign  principality,  the  smallest  state  of  the 
German  confederacy,  of  about  fifty-three  square  miles,  bordering  on 
the  Rhine. 

Lictors,  public  servants  attendant  upon  the  Roman  magistrates.  They 
were  the  executioners,  and  each  carried  an  axe,  tied  up  in  a  bundle 
of  rods,  called/asc«s. 

Liegeman,  a  subject. 

Liternum,  (now  Torre  di  Patria,)  a  town  of  Campania,  in  Italy,  on 
the  Mediterranean,  a  few  miles  northwest  of  Naples. 

Livy,  see  page  60. 

Locri,  (now  Motta  di  Bruzzano,)  a  town  near  the  southern  extremity 
of  Italy,  founded  by  a  Grecian  colony  of  Locrians.  The  inhabitants 
of  Locris  were  also  called  Locri. 

Locrians,  (or  Locri,)  the  inhabitants  of  Locris,  a  country  of  Middle 
Greece.  There  were  several  branches  of  Locrians,  one  of  which 
inhabited  a  region  lying  on  the  gulf  of  Corinth  ;  others  (one  of 
which  was  called  the  Opuntian  Locriana,  from  their  chief  town, 
Opus)  bordered  on  a  gulf  of  the  JEgean  Sea. 

Lombard]},  a  country  in  the  north  of  Italy,  between  Switzerland  and 
Tuscany. 

Loopholed,  full  of  loopholes,  that  is,  openings,  or  void  spaces. 

Louit  XL,  King  of  France  from  1461  to  1483.  He  was  remarkable 
for  treachery  and  cruelty  ;  and  hi*  ministers  and  companions  were 


GLOSSARY.  363 

of  the  lowest  classes.  He  was  devotional,  to  a  superstitious  de- 
gree ;  yet  this  did  not  prevent  him  from  the  commission  of  enor- 
mous crimes.  His  character,  in  other  respects,  was  made  up  of 
the  most  opposing  traits.  The  great  effort  of  his  life  was  to  reduce 
the  power  of  the  feudal  aristocracy,  and  make  his  own  power  ab- 
iblute. 

Louis  XVI.,  King  of  France,  was  born  in  1754,  and  perished  on  the 
scaffold,  amid  the  horrors  of  the  French  Revolution,  in  1793.  He 
was  a  prince  of  great  integrity  of  character,  and  benevolence  of 
heart,  but  of  great  weakness  and  indecision  of  purpose  ;  without 
practical  knowledge,  at  a  time  when  great  practical  energy  in  the 
monarch  was  requisite  ;  and  his  private  virtue  was  insufficient  to 
maintain  his  throne. 

Louis  XVIII.,  of  France,  brother  of  Louis  the  Sixteenth,  was  born 
in  1755,  and  came  to  the  throne  in  1814,  on  the  abdication  of  Na 
poleon.  He  died  in  1824.  He  resembled  his  brother  in  the  hu 
manity  and  kindness  of  his  character  ;  was  attached  to  literary  pur- 
suits, possessed  much  intellectual  cultivation,  and  was  of  a  mag- 
nanimous and  noble  spirit. 

Low  Countries,  see  Netherlands. 

Lowers,  a  village  of  the  canton  of  Schwytz,  in  Switzerland. 

Luceria,  a  city  of  Apulia,  in  ancient  Italy  ;  now  Lucera,  in  the  king 
dom  of  Naples,  a  city  of  eight  thousand  inhabitants,  lying  about  sixty 
miles  northeast  from  the  city  of  Naples. 

Lucerne,  one  of  the  central  cantons  of  Switzerland,  with  a  capital  city 
of  the  same  name.  It  is  one  of  the  least  mountainous  parts  of  Swit- 
zerland. 

Lutherans,  followers  of  the  doctrines  of  Luther. 

Luther,  (Martin,)  the  first  and  chief  of  the  Reformers,  born  at  Isle- 
ben,  a  town  of  Saxony,  November  10,  1483.  He  became  a  monk 
of  the  order  of  St.  Augustine,  but  soon  after,  threw  off  the  cowl  and 
the  fetters  of  papal  authority.  He  wrote  and  preached  with  great 
severity  against  the  sale  of  indulgences,  advocated  the  free  perusal 
of  the  Scriptures,  the  suppression  of  monasteries,  and  the  marriage 
of  priests  or  ministers.  He  completed,  in  thirteen  years,  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  into  German,  and  published  many  powerful  trea- 
tises on  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformed  faith.  As  a  preacher,  he  was 
wise,  practical,  and  eloquent.  Possessed  of  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  human  nature,  and  of  great  sagacity,  his  courage  was  undaunt- 
ed, and  his  constancy  unshaken,  amid  all  the  threats  and  attacks 
of  the  Pope  and  Roman  Catholic  clergy  ;  and  nearly  all  Germany 
became  ardently  attached  to  his  person  and  religious  views.  He 
died  February  18,  1546,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three  years,  after  a 
long  and  painful  illness.  For  an  account  of  his  appearance  before 
the  Diet  of  Worms,  see  pp.  141-157. 

Lycia,  a  province  in  the  southern  part  of  Asia  Minor,  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean  sea. 

Lysias,  a  celebrated  Athenian  orator,  who  flourished  about  B.  C.  458. 
His  orations  (of  which  thirty-four,  only,  out  of  more  than  two  hun- 
dred, remain)  are  remarkable  for  elegance,  simplicity,  acuteness 
and  grace. 


364  GLOSSARY. 

Macedonia,  the  northern  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Greece,  now  (ha 
southerly  part  of  European  Turkey. 

Madrid,  the  capital  of  Spain,  near  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  two 
hundred  miles  from  the  sea. 

Malta,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  nearly  opposite  to  the  south 
angle  of  Sicily,  about  fifty  miles  distant. 

Manosque,  a  town  in  the  southeastern  part  of  France,  near  the  Medi 
terranean.  A  commandery  (one  of  the  subdivisions)  of  the  Order 
of  Knights  of  Malta  was  formerly  established  here. 

Mansfield,  Lord,  (William  Murray,)  Chief  Justice  of  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench,  in  England,  from  1756  to  1788.  His  Life,  by 
Holliday,  was  published  in  1797. 

Mantineans,  inhabitants  of  Mantinea,  an  important  city  of  Arcadia, 
(the  central  region  of  the  Peloponnesus,)  and  which  was  famous  for 
a  battle  fought  near  it. 

Margrave,  a  German  title  of  nobility  ;  a  count  or  prince. 

Marseilles,  an  important  commercial  city  of  France^  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, containing  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  inhabit- 
ants. 

Mass,  the  prayers  and  ceremonies,  which,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  accompany  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist,  or  sacrament 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Mass  is  said,  on  all  public  occasions  of  wor- 
ship. The  saying  of  masses  for  the  dead,  a  practice  arising  from  the 
persuasion  that  souls  could  be  saved  from  a  part  of  the  punishment 
for  their  sins,  by  a  certain  number  of  masses  said,  (which  masses 
were  paid  for  by  the  friends  of  the  dead,)  was  one  of  the  abuses 
which  was  denounced  by  the  early  Reformers. 

Master  of  the  Horse,  see  Dictator. 

Mathesius,  (John,)  an  historian,  who  sprung  from  a  family  prolific  m 
learned  men,  and  was  born,  A.  D.  1505.  He  was  for  some  time  a 
domestic  of  Luther,  and  afterwards  a  German  Protestant  minister 
of  Rochlic  or  Rochilz,  a  town  of  Saxony,  and  then  for  thirty  years 
minister  of  the  parish  of  Joachimsthal,  (Joachim's  Valley,)  in  Bo- 
hemia. He  was  the  author  of  several  works  on  Philosophy,  a  Life 
of  Christ,  Chronicles  of  Joachimsthal,  a  Life  of  Luther,  and  other 
works.  He  died  October  7,  1565. 

Medes,  inhabitants  of  Media,  the  most  important  province  of  the  an- 
cient Persian  empire,  lying  south  of  the  Caspian  sea. 

Medina  Sidonia,  a  town  in  Andalusia,  in  Spain,  near  the  straits  of 
Gibraltar,  and  twenty-two  miles  southeast  of  Cadiz.  It  is  the  capi- 
tal of  a  duchy. 

Melamput,  a  celebrated  soothsayer  and  physician,  of  the  fabulous  pe- 
riod of  Grecian  history.  Marvellous  powers  were  attributed  to  him, 
and  divine  honors  paid  him  after  death. 

Melians,  inhabitants  of  Melis,  a  country  lying  on  the  Maliac  (now 
the  Zeiton)  Gulf,  a  gulf  of  the  Archipelago,  south  of  Thessaly. 

Memoirs,  aee  Academy. 

Meuse,  a  river,  rising  in  France,  and  flowing  into  the  German  Ocean. 

Milanene  territory,  a  country  in  the  northeast  part  of  Italy,  formerly 
tin-  duchy  of  Milan,  now  a  part  of  Austrian  Italy.  Th«-  capital  ia 
Milan,  a  city  of  about  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand  inhabitant*. 


GLOSSARY  365 

Mittiades,  a  celebrated  Athenian  general,  who  lived  about  B.  C.  500. 
He  was  the  commander  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  B.  C.  490,  wher« 
the  Persians  were  defeated  by  the  Athenians  and  Plataeans  in  a  glo 
rious  victory,  gained  with  a  small  force  over  one  immensely  supe- 
rior. 

Minaret,  see  Mosque, 

Minerva,  one  of  the  principal  deities  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  my 
thology,  the  daughter  of  Jupiter,  and  the  goddess  of  wisdom,  of  war 
and  of  the  active  and  inventive  arts  of  peace. 

Mines,  see  Countermines. 

Minorites,  see  Capuchins. 

Mohammed,  the  founder  of  a  system  of  religion  which  has  spread  over 
a  great  part  of  the  East.  He  was  born  at  Mecca,  in  Arabia,  about 
A.  D.  569,  and  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-three.  Claiming  to  be  a  divine 
messenger  from  God,  he  obtained  an  immense  ascendancy,  which 
he  increased  by  the  power  of  the  sword.  He  is  reverenced  by  his 
followers,  as  the  only  true  prophet  of  God.  The  believers  in 
Mohammed  are  called  Mohammedans,  Mussulmans,  or  Moslems. 
Their  number  is  estimated  at  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  millions, 
being  about  half  as  great  as  the  Christian  population  of  the  globe. 

Mohammed  II.,  Sultan  of  the  Turks,  was  son  of  Amurath  the  Second. 
He  was  born  in  1430,  and  ascended  the  Turkish  throne  in  1451. 
His  reign  is  memorable  for  the  destruction  of  the  Byzantine  empire 
of  the  Romans,  the  most  memorable  scene  of  which,  the  fall  of  Con- 
stantinople, is  described  in  this  Volume,  (pages  111-140.)  See  also 
page  160,  for  a  comprehensive  notice  of  this  conqueror.  He  died  in 
1481. 

Mole,  see  Breakwater. 

Moles,  (Latin,)  a  mass,  a  pile. 

Monaco,  a  city  of  Italy,  on  the  Mediterranean,  northwest  of  Corsica, 
and  capital  of  a  small  principality  of  the  same  name. 

Monks,  Monastic  vows,  see  Religious  Orders. 

Moorish,  of  the  Moors,  a  people  inhabiting  northwestern  Africa,  par- 
ticularly the  states  of  Morocco  and  Fez,  and  who  possessed  a  large 
part  of  Spain,  from  the  eighth  to  the  fifteenth  century.  Learning  and 
the  arts  flourished  among  them,  and  there  are  still  remaining,  in 
Spain,  many  monuments  of  their  labors  and  their  magnificence. 

Morea,  (anciently  called  Peloponnesus,)  the  southern  peninsula  of 
Greece,  from  the  continental  part  of  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
gulf  of  Lepanto  and  the  gulf  of  Athens,  and  connected  with  it  by  the 
narrow  isthmus  of  Corinth. 

Morgarten,  a  mountain  of  Schwytz,  in  Switzerland,  where  the  Arch- 
duke Leopold,  of  Austria,  with  twenty  thousand  men,  was  defeated 
by  sixteen  hundred  men  from  the  forest  districts  of  Schwytz,  Uri, 
and  Unterwalden,  December  6,  1315. 

Morsburg,  a  town  of  Baden,  (Germany,)  on  the  Lake  of  Constance. 

Mosaics,  imitations  of  paintings,  by  means  of  colored  stones,  pieces  of 
glass,  of  marble,  and  even  of  wood,  of  different  colors,  cemented 
together.  Works  of  all  varieties  of  beauty  and  costliness  are  thus 
produced. 

Moslem,  see  Mohammed. 
31* 


366  GLOSSARY. 

Mosque,  a  Mohammedan  house  of  prayer.  Every  mosque  has  one  or 
more  minarets,  which  are  towers,  from  which  the  muezzin  (crier) 
proclaims  the  hours,  and  summons  the  people  to  prayer. 

Mount  Sinai,  a  mountain  of  Arabia,  near  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea, 
celebrated  in  Jewish  history  as  the  spot  where  the  law  was  given  to 
Moses. 

Mussulman,  see  Mohammed. 

Mycenee,  a  town  of  Argolis,  the  eastern  province  of  Peloponnesus. 

Nabis,  a  cruel  and  oppressive  tyrant  of  Lacedaemon,  who  reigned  about 
the  year  B.  C.  200. 

Namaz,  the  sacrifice,  or  prayers  with  their  ceremonies,  which  the 
Mussulmans  are  obliged  to  offer  and  perform  five  times  a  day. 

Naples,  a  kingdom  embracing  the  southern  part  of  Italy,  with  a  capital 
of  the  same  name. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  most  extraordinary  warrior  of  modern  times, 
born  August  15,  1769,  at  Ajaccio,  in  the  island  of  Corsica,  and 
educated  in  the  military  schools  of  France.  He  rapidly  rose  from 
the  station  of  an  officer  of  artillery  to  that  of  Emperor  of  France, 
the  throne  of  which  he  ascended  in  1804.  He  was  constantly  en- 
gaged in  war,  and  was  victorious  in  all  his  battles,  till  towards  the 
close  of  his  career,  when  he  suffered  reverses,  and  finally,  at  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  June  18,  1815,  he  was  defeated,  and  gave  him- 
self up  to  the  English,  by  whom  he  was  sent  to  the  Island  of  St.  He 
lena,  where  he  remained  a  prisoner,  till  he  died,  May  5, 1821.  The 
record  of  his  various  battles  and  other  public  operations,  would  alone 
fill  a  volume  ;  and  of  course  cannot  here  be  enumerated.  His  mili- 
tary genius  has  hardly  been  rivalled  in  any  age,  and  it  may  be  truly 
said,  that  his  victories  were  not  so  much  the  consequence  of  fortu- 
nate accidents,  as  the  results  of  vast  scientific  combinations  and  cal- 
culations, executed  with  boldness  and  precision.  France  is  indebted 
to  him  for  a  most  elaborate  and  comprehensive  code  of  laws,  and  for 
various  public  works  of  great  national  importance  and  surpassing 
magnificence.  Measures  have  just  been  adopted,  by  the  French  gov- 
ernment, for  the  removal  of  his  remains  to  France,  to  be  deposited 
under  a  public  monument.  , 

Nassau,  a  duchy  of  Germany,  bordering  westerly  on  the  Rhine 

Navarre,  formerly  an  independent  kingdom,  now  a  province  in  the 
northerly  part  of  Spain,  bordering  on  the  southwest  corner  of  France. 

Netherlands,  also  called  the  Low  Countries,  a  kingdom  of  Europe, 
bordering  on  the  North  Sea,  or  German  Ocean. 

Nicholas  V.t  Pope  of  Rome,  from  1447  to  1455. 

Nicholas,  St.,  a  bishop  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  reign  of  Constantino  the 
Great,  remarkable  for  his  piety  and  charity.  He  died  about  the 
year  392.  He  is  regarded  by  the  Russians,  particularly,  with  great 
veneration. 

Numantia,  a  very  noble  city  of  ancient  Spain,  which,  with  four  thous- 
and men,  held  out  a  siege  of  fourteen  years,  against  forty  thousand 
Romans,  but  at  last  yielded,  and  was  destroyed,  B.  C.  183. 

Nuremberg,  a  city  of  Bavaria,  containing  about  thirty  thousand  inhab- 
itants. It  was  formerly  a  free  and  imperial  city,  twice  as  populous 
as  at  present.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  manufactures. 


GLOSSARY.  367 

Oberkirch,     town  of  Baden,  Germany. 

Oda,  (Turkish,  a  chamber,)  a  class  or  order.  The  pages,  or  attend- 
ants, of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  are  divided  into  five  chambers,  or 
classes,  called  odas. 

Oecumenic,  general  ;  universal.  Certain  councils  of  the  Church,  in 
the  earlier  centuries,  were  so  called,  because  all  the  bishops  of  the 
Church  were  invited  to  them. 

OStean  Mountains,  or  Mount  (Eta,  (now  Eanina,)  a  celebrated 
chain  of  mountains  between  Thessaly  and  Phocis,  Doris,  and  ^Etolia, 
and  running  from  the  straits  of  Thermopylae  and  the  Gulf  of  Malia, 
(or  Lamia,  now  Gulf  of  Zeiton,)  in  a  westerly  direction,  to  Mount 
Pindus.  It  was  upon  this  mountain,  that  Hercules  burnt  himself. 

Official,  the  person  to  whom  the  cognizance  of  causes  is  committed, 
by  those  who  have  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction. 

Olympic  games,  one  of  the  solemn  festivals  of  the  Greeks,  held  every 
four  years,  at  Olympia,  a  town  of  ancient  Elis,  in  the  western  part 
of  the  Morea.  Their  celebration  commenced  B.  C.  776,  from  which 
time,  the  Olympiads,  or  periods  of  four  years  each,  were  reckoned. 
The  games  consisted  in  races,  on  horseback  and  on  foot,  in  leaping, 
throwing  the  quoit,  wrestling,  and  boxing  ;  and  musical,  poetical, 
and  literary,  contests  concluded  the  whole.  The  honor  of  a  victory 
at  these  games  was  very  great. 

Opuntian  Locrians,  see  Locrians. 

Oracle,  an  answer  given,  by  persons  pretending  to  divine  inspiration. 
The  place  where  these  responses  were  given  was  also  called  the  ora- 
cle. There  were  several  in  ancient  Greece.  They  were  consulted 
on  all  public  exigencies,  and  a  reverential  regard  was  paid  to  the 
answers  obtained. 

Orange,  Prince  of.  William  the  First,  Prince  of  Orange,  the  foundei 
of  Dutch  freedom,  was  born  in  1533,  and  died,  by  the  hand  of  an 
assassin,  in  1584.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  provinces  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, in  their  long  and  bloody  war  against  the  crown  of  Spain, 
some  scenes  of  which  are  described  in  this  Volume.  (See  pages 
287,  &c.)  He  was  a  man  of  acute  and  penetrating  understanding, 
but  of  a  most  impenetrable  reserve.  He  was  calm  and  firm  in  the 
midst  of  dangers.  He  holds  a  high  place  in  history,  as  one  who 
was  ever  more  anxious  for  the  welfare  of  his  people  than  for  his 
own  exaltation. 

Orb  with  the  cross.  A  globe,  surmounted  with  a  cross,  was  a  badge  of 
empire,  and  an  image  of  victory,  under  the  Roman  emperors,  before 
the  establishment  of  Christianity  ;  and  has  continued,  in  various 
kingdoms  and  empires,  since  then,  to  be  one  of  the  badges  of  royal- 
ty, carried  in  state  on  public  occasions. 

Orcades,  or  Orkney  Isles,  a  group  of  small  islands  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Scotland. 

Oriental,  belonging  to  the  East,  that  is,  particularly,  to  Asia.  The 
Oriental  or  Asiatic  style,  both  of  speaking  and  writing,  is  remarka- 
ble for  its  use  of  figurative  expressions. 

Orvieto,  a  city  in  Italy,  about  fifty  miles  north-northwest  of  Rome.  ^ 

Ostend,  a  seaport  of  the  Netherlands.  Its  situation  is  described  in 
page  297. 


368  GLOSSARY. 

Otranto,  a  fortified  city  near  the  southeastern  extremity  of  Italy. 

Ottoman,  Turkish.  The  Turks  derive  the  name  of  Ottomans,  or  O« 
manli,  (the  latter  being  the  correct  national  appellation,)  from  Osman, 
or  Othman,  who  became  Sultan  in  the  year  1300. 

Padua,  a  very  ancient  city  in  the  north  of  Italy,  about  twenty-two 
miles  west  of  Venice. 

Palceologus,  the  family  name  of  the  last  Roman  emperors.  See  Con- 
stantinople. 

Palatinate,  a  country  in  Germany,  formerly  governed  by  an  elector 
palatine.  The  word  palatine  is  derived  from  the  Latin  palatium, 
(a  palace,)  and  means  one  holding  an  employment  in  the  king's  pal- 
ace, and  hence,  one  invested  whh  royal  privileges. 

Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land,  unquestionably  the  most  memorable  and 
interesting  country  on  the  face  of  the  whole  earth  ;  the  land  most 
sacred  to  our  recollection,  as  men  and  as  Christians  ;  at  once  the 
most  favored  and  the  most  guilty  country  under  heaven  ;  which  was, 
between  two  and  three  thousand  years,  the  only  portion  of  the 
world  where  the  worship  of  the  true  God  was  maintained  ;  the  scene 
of  nearly  all  the  important  events  recorded  in  the  Bible  ;  where  the 
Lord  of  glory  lived,  and  taught,  and  suffered  ;  to  which  the  banished 
Jew  looks,  as  to  his  long-lost  home  ;  and  the  devout  Christian,  for 
the  completion  of  prophecies  yet  to  be  accomplished  ; — this  most 
interesting  country  is  a  small  canton  in  tho  southwest  part  of  Syria, 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  also  called  the  Land 
of  Judea,  Israel,  Canaan,  &c.  Jerusalem  is  its  capital, — a  city 
which  was  founded  about  the  year  B.  C.  2023,  and  which,  having 
survived  the  revolutions  of  more  than  four  thousand  years,  is  still 
an  important  city,  in  our  own  day. 

Pall  Mall,  the  name  of  a  street  in  London. 

Palos,  a  small  town  in  Spain,  where  Columbus  fitted  out  his  ships, 
and  whence  he  sailed  for  the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  in  1492. 

Pampeluna,  a  city  of  Spain,  seventy-eight  miles  northwest  of  Zarago- 
za,  with  a  population  of  about  fourteen  thousand.  It  is  strongly 
fortified. 

Panel,  (of  a  wall,)  the  space  between  two  projections. 

Parapet,  an  elevation  of  earth,  designed  to  cover  the  soldiers  from  the 
enemy's  cannon  or  small  shot. 

Party  wall,  a  wall  that  separates  one  house  from  the  next. 

Passau,  a  city  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Danube,  formerly  capital  of  a  princi- 
pality of  the  same  name. 

Patriarch,  the  title  given,  as  early  as  the  fifth  century,  to  the  Bishops 
of  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem. 
The  Patriarch  of  Rome  took  the  title  of  Pope  ;  the  other  Bishops 
retained  that  of  Patriarchs.  The  title  is  also  given,  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  to  certain  archbishops. 

Patrician,  one  of  the  nobility,  or  higher  order,  of  the  Roman  people  ; 
the  lower  order  being  called  Plebeians,  (which  see.) 

Pausanias,  a  Spartan  general,  the  nephew  of  Leonidas.  He  was  vic- 
torious at  the  battle  of  Pluttesc,  but  his  arrogance  and  impetuosity 
alienated  the  minds  of  the  allies  of  Sparta.  He  subsequently  entered 
into  traitorous  negotiations  with  the  Persian  King,  and  offered  to 


GLOSSARY.  369 

betray  Greece  to  him,  on  condition  of  receiving  the  daughter  of  the 
Monarch  for  his  wife.  His  intrigues  were  discovered,  and  he  was 
condemned  to  death  by  his  countrymen.  Having  taken  refuge  in  a 
temple  of  Minerva,  and  as  the  sanctity  of  the  place  screened  him 
from  being  taken,  the  sacred  building  was  blocked  up  with  heaps  of 
stones,  and  he  was  starved  to  death.  He  died  about  B.  C.  471. 

Pavia,  a  city  of  Austrian  Italy,  formerly  capital  of  a  duchy  of  the 
same  name.  Its  population  is  about  twenty-five  thousand.  It  is 
remarkable  for  an  ancient  and  well-endowed  university. 

Peloponnesus,  (now  Morea,  which  see,)  the  southern  peninsula  of 
Greece.  It  received  its  name  (Iltlonov  vr,aog,  Pelopou  nesos,  the 
island  of  Pelops,)  from  Pelops,  an  ancient  monarch  of  the  country, 
of  the  fabulous  age.  Hence  it  is  called,  (page  32,)  *'  Pelops'  sea- 
girt region." 

Pelops,  see  preceding  article. 

Penelope's  web.  Penelope  was  a  celebrated  princess  of  Greece,  wife 
of  Ulysses,  King  of  Ithaca,  and  mother  of  Telemachus.  Her  hus- 
band being  absent  ten  years,  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  not  returning 
for  many  years  after,  it  was  supposed  he  was  dead,  upon  which 
many  princes  became  desirous  of  marrying  her.  She  told  them  she 
could  give  neither  of  them  an  answer,  till  she  had  completed  a  piece 
of  tapestry  upon  which  she  was  employed.  The  work  was  done  in 
a  dilatory  manner,  and  what  she  did  in  the  day,  she  undid  at  night, 
so  that  the  web  was  never  finished.  This  artifice  of  Penelope  has 
given  rise  to  the  proverb  of  Penelope's  web,  applied  to  labors  which 
can  never  be  ended. 

Pericles,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  statesmen  of  ancient  Greece, 
whose  age  (sometimes  called  the  Periclean  age)  was  the  most 
flourishing  period  of  Grecian  arts  and  sciences.  He  was  a  man 
of  vast  sagacity  and  penetration,  of  commanding  eloquence,  and 
great  military  genius.  He  adorned  the  city  of  Athens  with  many 
magnificent  public  buildings  and  useful  works.  His  great  ambition, 
during  the  long  time  for  which  he  wielded  almost  supreme  authori- 
ty, was,  to  place  Athens  at  the  head  of  the  Grecian  states,  both 
politically  and  intellectually.  He  died  about  B.  C.  429,  after  a 
lingering  sickness  ;  and  on  his  deathbed  considered  that  it  was  his 
greatest  glory  "that  he  had  never  caused  an  Athenian  to  put  on 
mourning." 

Petard,  a  metallic  engine,  shaped  like  a  high-crowned  hat,  and  loaded 
with  powder.  It  is  used  to  break  down  gates,  walls,  and  barriers, 
against  which  it  is  hung  and  exploded. 

Phcedon,  a  disciple  of  Socrates  ;  whose  name  Plato  gave  to  the  dia 
logue  in  which  he  relates  the  last  conversation  of  Socrates  with  his 
scholars. 

Phidias,  a  celebrated  Athenian  sculptor,  who  flourished  about  B.  C. 
444.  He  superintended  the  magnificent  works  with  which  Pericles 
adorned  the  city  of  Athens,  and  wrought  many  of  them  himself. 

Philelphus,  (Francis,)  a  celebrated  philologist  and  voluminous  writer, 
who  was  born  in  Italy,  in  1398,  and  died  in  1481.      He  went  in  his 
youth  to  Constantinople,  to  study  Greek.     There,   his  talents  re 
commended  him  to  John  Palaeologus,  who  received  him  into  his  ser- 


370  GLOSSARY. 

vice,  and  gave  him  his  daughter  Theodora  in  marriage.  He  return- 
ed to  Italy  in  1427,  where  he  remained  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  en- 
gaged in  literary  pursuits. 

Phlius,  (now  Staphlica,)  a  town  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Pelopon- 
nesus. 

Phocean,  belonging  to  Phocis,  a  country  of  ancient  Greece,  border- 
ing, on  the  south ,  on  the  Gulf  of  Corinth. 

Phranza,  (George,)  one  of  the  Byzantine  historians,  (see  Ckalcocon- 
dyles,)  who  wrote  a  chronicle  of  Byzantine  history  from  1401  to 
1477.  (See  page  134.) 

Piquet,  a  small  company  of  soldiers. 

Platace,  a  town  of  Boeotia,  (a  region  in  the  easterly  part  of  ancient 
Greece,)  where  an  important  victory  was  gained  by  the  allied  Greeks, 
under  Pausanias  and  Aristides,  over  the  army  of  Mardonius,  a  gen 
eral  of  the  Persian  King  Xerxes,  B.  C.  479. 

Plateau,  a  platform  ;  an  elevated  space  of  level  ground. 

Plato,  see  page  28. 

Plebeian,  belonging  to  the  plebeians,  or  the  lower  order  of  the  Roman 
people,  the  higher  order,  or  nobility,  being  called  patricians.  The 
plebeian  tribunes,  or  tribunes  of  the  commons,  were  magistrates  at 
Rome,  chosen  from  among  the  plebeians,  and  whose  office  it  was  to 
secure  the  rights  of  the  common  people.  They  were  possessed  of 
considerable  and  important  powers. 

Pleminius,  (Quintus,)  an  officer  under  Scipio  Africanus,  who,  being 
left  by  the  latter  in  charge  of  the  city  of  Locri,  (B.  C.  205,)  occa- 
sioned great  disturbances  there  by  his  cruelty  and  avarice.  Charges 
were  in  consequence  made  against  Scipio  at  Rome,  for  neglect  of 
duty  in  leaving  his  province.  Pleminius  was  brought  to  Rome,  and 
died  in  prison. 

Poggio  Bracciolini,  an  early  promoter  of  literature  in  Italy,  and 
author  of  a  history  of  Florence.  He  was  born  in  1380,  and  died  in 
1459. 

Polymnia,  or  Polyhymnia,  the  name  of  one  of  the  Muses,  who  were 
deities  of  the  ancient  mythology,  nine  in  number,  presiding  over  va- 
rious branches  of  science  and  art.  The  different  books  of  the  history 
of  Herodotus  are  each  called  by  the  name  of  one  of  the  Muses. 

Ponte  Molle,  (anciently  Pons  Milvius,  the  Milvian  bridge,)  a  bridge 
over  the  Tiber,  at  Rome. 

Pontiff,  a  high  priest.  The  Roman  Pontiff,  or  Pope,  (see  Patriarch,) 
is  the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  styles  himself  the 
vicar  (deputy,  delegate)  of  Christ  upon  earth. 

Porsena,  a  King  of  Etruria,  who  made  war  upon  the  Romans,  because 
they  refused  to  restore  Tarquin  (see  Brutus')  to  his  throne.  His 
whole  army  was  opposed  at  the  head  of  a  bridge,  by  Horatius  Co- 
des, a  Roman,  while  his  companions  were  cutting  down  the  bridge, 
and  destroying  the  communication  with  the  other  shore.  When  the 
bridge  was  destroyed,  Codes  leaped  into  the  Tiber,  and  swam  to  the 
opposite  side. 

Portcullis,  an  assemblage  of  several  large  pieces  of  wood,  joined 
across  one  another  like  a  harrow,  and  each  pointed  with  iron  at  the 
bottom.  They  were  formerly  hung  over  the  gateways  of  fortified 


GLOSSARY.  371 

places,  ready  to  let  down  in  cases  of  surprise,  when  the  gates  could 
not  be  shut. 

Porte.  The  Turkish,  or  Ottoman,  Court  is  called  the  Porte,  the  Otto 
man  Porte,  or  the  Sublime  Porte.  The  term  is  derived  from  a 
beautiful  gate  (ports'}  of  the  palace  of  the  Sultan  Osman,  orOthman. 
(See  Ottoman.) 

Prcetor,  the  title  of  a  Roman  magistrate,  on  whom  devolved  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  and  who  was  next  in  rank  to  the  consul. 
There  was  at  first  only  one,  but  the  number  was  afterwards  in 
creased,  till,  in  Julius  Caesar's  time,  there  were  ten.  The  city 
preetor  tried  all  causes  between  citizens  ;  another  praetor,  those  be- 
tween citizens  and  foreigners  ;  the  remainder  administered  justice 
in  the  provinces.  The  city  prtetor  took  also  the  place  of  the  con- 
suls, in  their  absence. 

Prague,  the  capital  city  of  Bohemia,  the  most  northerly  of  the  states 
of  the  Austrian  empire.  It  is  a  very  ancient  town,  has  a  population 
of  about  eighty  thousand,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  university. 

Prior.  Grand  Prior  was  the  title  of  certain  of  the  highest  officers 
of  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Malta.  Each  language 
had  its  grand  prior.  See  page  160. 

Propontis,  (now  Sea  of  Marmora,)  a  small  inland  sea,  lying  between 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  Archipelago. 

Protestants.  All  who  reject  human  authority,  in  matters  of  religion, 
may  now  be  included  under  this  term,  which  takes  its  origin  from  a 
protest  made  in  1539,  by  some  members  of  the  German  empire,  fa- 
vorers of  the  Reformation,  against  a  resolve  of  the  diet  held  at  Spire, 
a  city  of  Bavaria,  in  1529.  This  resolve  was  designed  to  check  the 
progress  of  the  Reformation,  by  interdicting  all  innovations  in  the 
Roman  Church,  and  all  preaching  of  a  kind  hostile  to  the  corruptions 
qf  the  Church. 

Provence,  one  of  the  old  provinces  of  France,  lying  in  the  southeast- 
ern part  of  the  country,  on  the  Mediterranean. 

Prytaneium,  the  building  in  Athens,  where  the  prytanes  (those  sena- 
tors who  presided  in  turn)  held  their  meetings,  and  lived  at  the 
public  expense  during  the  thirty-five  or  thirty-six  days  of  their  pres- 
idency. The  liberty  of  eating  in  the  Prytaneium  was  one  of  the 
highest  marks  of  honor,  and  was  conferred  only  on  those  who  had 
done  important  service  to  the  state. 

Pylte,  a  Greek  word,  signifying  gates,  and  often  applied  to  narrow 
straits  or  passes  between  mountains,  like  that  at  Therrrjopyla3. 

Pylcea,  a  name  by  which  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons  was  called, 
because  it  met  near  Thermopylae.  The  name  was  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  place  of  its  meetings. 

Pylagorce,  deputies  to  the  Amphictyonic  council. 

Quarrel,  a  squareheaded  arrow,  from  the  Italian,  quadrello,  (a  square 
arrow,)  which  is  derived  from  quadra,  (a  square,)  and  that  from 
quattro,  (four.) 

Questor,  a  Roman  magistrate,  who  managed  the  public  treasury. 
There  were  two  of  these  officers  in  the  city,  and  several  others  in 
the  different  provinces. 

Quirites,  a  name  given  to  the  Roman  citizens,  as  is  supposed,  from 


372  GLOSSARY. 

their  admitting  into  union  with  them  the  Sabine  inhabitants  of  Cares, 
who  were  called  Quirites. 

Ravelin,  a  work  raised  before  the  curtain,  and  on  the  counterscarp, 
of  a  fortified  place.  It  consists  of  two  faces,  (or  sides,)  which 
form  a  salient  (or  projecting)  angle.  (See  Bastion,  and  Counter- 
scarp.) 

Rector,  the  title  given  to  the  head  of  some  universities.  The  office 
of  Rector  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  that  of  President,  and  some- 
times superior  to  it. 

Recusants,  (Latin,  recusans,  refusing,)  those  Roman  Catholics,  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  in  England,  who  refused  to  conform  to  the  re 
ligious  establishment  instituted  by  that  Queen. 

The  Reformation,  that  event  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church, 
when  Protestants  separated  from  the  Church  of  Rome. 

Relics,  the  remains,  or  supposed  remains,  of  holy  persons,  saints,  and 
martyrs,  or  some  object  belonging  to  them,  or  connected  with  them. 
Such  relics  have  always  been  held  in  great  veneration  by  Roman 
Catholics  ;  a  superstitious  regard  has  been  paid  to  them,  and  they 
have  been  supposed  to  possess  the  power  of  working  miracles. 

Religious  Orders,  associations  of  persons,  bound  to  lead  strict  and  de- 
votional lives,  and  to  live  separate  from  the  world.  The  males  of 
'such  associations,  are  called  monks,  and  the  females,  nuns  ;  and 
the  vows  of  temperance,  continence,  poverty,  &c.,  which  they  take, 
and  are  obliged  perpetually  to  observe,  are  called  monastic  vows. 

Rhodian,  an  inhabitant  of  Rhodes,  for  a  notice  of  which,  see  page 
160. 

Romania,  a  name  applied,  by  the  Turks,  to  the  greater  part  of  Tur- 
key in  Europe,  and  by  European  writers  to  that  part  of  it  lying  south 
of  the  Balkan  mountains. 

Rome,  which  has  been  called  *  the  Eternal  City,'  '  the  mistress  of  the 
world,'  and  '  the  mother  of  nations,'  is  a  city  of  Italy,  situated  on 
both  sides  of  the  River  Tiber,  near  the  Mediterranean.  For  up- 
wards of  two  thousand  years  have  the  principal  occurrences  in  his- 
tory been  connected  with  her  religious  or  political  policy,  her  arts 
and  arms.  The  Pope  resides  here  ;  but  the  city  now  presents  but 
the  shadow  of  her  former  greatness.  As  the  residence  of  the  popes, 
and  the  capital  city  and  central  point  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
it  has  been  called  the  '  sacred  city." 

Rostrum,  (properly  rostra,)  an  elevated  platform,  in  the  forum  at 
Rome,  whence  the  orators  used  to  harangue  the  people  ;  so  called, 
because  it  was  adorned  with  the  rostra  (beaks)  of  the  ships,  taken 
by  the  Romans  in  a  war  with  the  people  of  Antiuin.  Ships  of  war 
had  their  prows  armed  with  a  sharp  beak,  covered  with  brass,  the 
object  of  which  was,  to  disable  the  ships  of  tin;  enemy  by  running 
into  them. 

Rotenburg,  or  Rottenburg,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of 
Lucerne. 

Rotterdam,  a  seaport  of  the  Netherlands,  on  the  River  Meuse.  It  has 
an  excellent  harbor,  and  contains  about  sixty-five  thousand  inhabi- 
tants. 

Riitt,  or  Reuss,  a  river  of  Switzerland,  which  passes  through  Lak« 


GLOSSARY.  373 

Uri,  or  Lucerne,  or  the  Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons,  and  falls  into  the 
Aar. 

Rutlin,  or  Rutli,  a  solitary  spot  on  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  (part  r  f  the 
Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons,)  in  Switzerland. 

St.  Angela,  Castle  of,  a  strong  fortress  in  Rome,  built  by  the  Empe- 
ror Adrian,  about  A.  D.  130,  for  his  Mausoleum,  and  rendered  by 
him  the  most  superb  monument  ever  raised  in  Rome.  About  the 
year  593,  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  named  it.  the  Castle  of  St.  An- 
gelo,  from  a  story  that  an  angel  was  seen  on  the  top  of  it,  sheathing 
a  sword,  during  the  time  of  a  plague.  It  communicates,  by  a  cov- 
ered gallery,  with  the  Vatican,  the  palace  of  the  Pope. 

St.  Basil,  a  bishop  of  Cresarea,  in  Cappadocia,  born  A.  D.  326,  and 
died  January  1,  379. 

St.  Jacobi,  (or  St.  James,)  day  of,  the  day  on  which  the  apostle  St. 
James  is  commemorated, — July  25. 

St.  Pantaleon,  (or  Pantalsemon,)  suffered  martyrdom,  at  Nicomedia, 
A.  D.  305.  A  church  was  erected  in  commemoration  of  him,  in  the 
seventh  century,  in  Constantinople,  and  others  in  other  places. 

St.  Romanus.  There  were  several  celebrated  individuals  of  this 
name,  one  of  whom  lived  about  A.  D.  258  ;  another  died  February 
28,  460  ;  and  another  was  made  Archbishop  of  Rouen,  in  France, 
A.  D.  622,  and  died  October  23,  639. 

St.  Sophia,  Church  of,  a  magnificent  cathedral,  erected  at  Constanti- 
nople, by  Justin  and  Justinian,  Emperors  of  the  East.  When  the 
city  was  captured  by  the  Turks,  they  perverted  the  church  into  a 
mosque,  which  is  still  considered  the  first  in  the  Mohammedan  do- 
minions. 

Salamis,  (now  Colouri,)  an  island  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Greece, 
separated  by  a  narrow  channel  from  Attica.  It  is  celebrated  for  a 
naval  victory  gained  by  the  Greeks  over  the  Persians,  B.  C.480. 

Salient  angle,  a  projecting  angle. 

Saltpetre,  (nitrate  of  potash,)  nitre,  one  of  the  ingredients  in  gunpow- 
der, the  other  two  being  sulphur  and  charcoal. 

Sappers  and  Miners,  see  Countermine. 

Saracens,  (Orientals,  or  people  of  the  East,)  the  name  adopted  by 
the  Arabs,  after  their  settlement  in  Europe,  as  the  term  Arabs, 
(people  of  the  West,)  which  denoted  their  geographical  position 
in  Asia,  was  improper  in  Europe. 

Sardinia,  a  large  island  in  the  ftlediterranean  Sea,  west  of  Italy.  It 
is  separated  from  Corsica,  on  the  north,  by  the  straits  of  Bonifacio. 

Sarnen,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in  the  district  of  Unterwalden. 

Sarzana,  a  town  and  fortress  in  Italy,  forty -five  miles  east-southeast 
:>f  Genoa. 

Satrapy,  the  name  of  a  class  of  provinces,  under  the  Persian  empire, 
which  were  under  governors  called  satraps. 

Scaling  ladders,  ladders  employed  for  scaling,  or  mounting,  walls, 
in  an  attack  on  a  fortified  place. 

Schajfhausen,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  capital  of  the  canton  of  SchafF- 
hausen,  on  the  Rhine,  celebrated  for  its  vicinity  to  the  largest  wa- 
terfalls in  Europe,  called  the  Falls  of  SchafFhausen. 

Schleiermacher,  (Frederick,)  a  celebrated  German  theologian,  who 
32  G.  E. 


374  GLOSSARY. 

was  jorn  in  1768,  and  died  in  1834.  His  translation  of  Plato  ap- 
peared during  the  later  years  of  his  life,  and  is  a  work  of  great  value. 
He  was  remarkable,  as  one  of  the  deepest  thinkers  of  his  day,  and 
as  a  man  of  great  energy  of  character  and  simplicity  of  manners,  as 
well  as  of  the  most  extensive  acquirements. 

Schwytz,  one  of  the  central  cantons  of  Switzerland. 

Scipio,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  family  in  ancient  Rome.  Publius 
Cornelius  Scipio,  surnamed  Jlfricanus,  from  his  having  disting- 
uished himself  by  his  conquests  in  Africa,  took  an  active  part,  from 
his  youth,  in  the  wars  between  the  Romans  and  Carthaginians,  and 
obtained  signal  victories  over  the  latter,  in  Spain  and  Africa,  van- 
quishing the  formidable  Carthaginian  general,  Hannibal,  himself. 
His  brother,  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio,  surnamed  Asiaticus,  from 
having  distinguished  himself  in  Asia,  accompanied  him  in  his  expe- 
ditions in  Spain  and  Africa,  and  afterwards  carried  on  a  successful 
war  against  Antiochus,  King  of  Syria.  For  an  account  of  the  later 
events  in  the  lives  of  these  generals,  see  pages  60-73. 

Scupper  holes,  or  scuppers,  small  holes  on  the  side  of  the  deck  of  a 
ship,  through  which  water  is  carried  off  into  the  sea. 

Selymbria,  a  town  of  ancient  Thrace,  on  the  Propontis,  or  Sea  of 
Marmora. 

Semiramis,  a  Q,ueen  of  Assyria,  (an  ancient  kingdom  of  Asia,)  whose 
whole  history  is  involved  in  fable  and  obscurity,  so  that  the  period 
of  her  reign  cannot  be  given  with  certainty.  She  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  about  two  thousand  years  before  Christ. 

Sempach,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
canton  of  Lucerne. 

Seraglio,  (Persian,  a  large  hall  or  house,)  particularly  applied  to  the 
palace  of  the  Turkish  Sultan  in  Constantinople,  the  walls  of  which 
embrace  a  circuit  of  about  nine  miles,  including  several  mosques, 
spacious  gardens,  and  buildings  capable  of  accommodating  twenty 
thousand  men,  though  not  more  than  half  that  number  are  usually 
located  there. 

Servia,  one  of  the  northern  provinces  of  European  Turkey,  bordering 
northerly  on  the  River  Danube. 

Serving  brothers,  or  servitors,  members  of  the  order  of  Hospitallers, 
(see  page  160,)  whose  duty  it  was  to  take  care  of  the  sick,  and  ac- 
company pilgrims. 

Sesterce,  (plural,  sesterces,)  a  Roman  coin,  worth  about  two  and  a 
half  cents. 

The  Seven  Towers,  a  fortress  on  the  southwest  side  of  the  city  of 
Constantinople. 

Severn,  a  river  of  England,  flowing  into  the  Bristol  Channel  between 
England  and  Wales. 

Sheds,  (in  fortification,)  slight  temporary  structures  for  defence. 

Rhnulilerwork,  a  breastwork,  a  defence,  of  earth  or  other  material, 
raised  to  the  height  of  the  breast  or  shoulder. 

Simonides,  a  lyric  poet  of  ancient  Greece,  who  flourished  about  five 
hundred  years  before  Christ. 

Sobiesky,  (John,)  King  of  Poland,  and  one  of  the  greatest  warriors  of 
bis  age,  was  born  A.  D.  1629,  and  died  in  1696.  When  the  Turks 


GLOSSARY.  375 

laid  siege  to  Vienna,  in  1683,  he  hastened  thither,  with  a  Polish  ar- 
my, and  rescued  the  imperial  city,  the  inhabitants  of  which  gratefully 
regarded  him  as  their  deliverer.  He  was  equally  remarkable  for 
the  gentleness  of  his  temper,  and  for  his  courage. 

Socrates,  see  page  28. 

Soliman  II. ,  (the  Magnificent,)  became  Sultan  of  the  Turkish  empire 
A.  D.  1520.  He  possessed  great  abilities,  displayed  alike  in  peace 
and  in  war,  and  extended  the  limits  of  the  Turkish  dominion.  He 
had  great  powers  of  command,  was  ambitious,  active,  and  enter- 
prising, and  is  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  the  Ottoman  emperors. 
He  died  in  1566.  His  siege  of  Rhodes,  in  1522,  is  described  in 
this  Volume. 

Sophists,  the  name  of  a  peculiar  class  of  teachers  of  eloquence,  phi- 
losophy, and  politics,  which  flourished  in  Greece  in  the  fifth  century 
before  Christ.  The  name  properly  signifies  wise  men,  (from  the 
Greek  aoipbg,  sophos,  wise,)  and  was  assumed  from  motives  of 
learned  pride.  But  as  the  later  sophists  perverted  the  science  which 
they  taught,  (see  page  28,)  the  title  was  applied  to  men  who  seek 
to  confound  the  understanding  by  false  reasonings. 

Sophocles,  an  illustrious  Greek  poet,  born  B.  C.  495.  He  died  at  a 
very  advanced  age.  His  tragedies  are  written  in  a  dignified  and 
elevated  style,  with  great  elegance  of  versification  and  purity  of 
language. 

Spalatin,  a  friend  of  Luther,  and  the  secretary  of  the  Elector  Frederick 
of  Saxony.  ^ 

Spartans,  see  Lacedcemonians. 

Spinola,  (Ambrose,  Marquis  of,)  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  his 
age,  who  was  born  at  Genoa,  in  1569,  and  died  in  1630.  He  joined 
the  Spanish  forces  in  the  Netherlands,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
siege  of  Ostend,  (see  pages  301,  &c.,)  and  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed genera  1-in-chief  of  all  the  Spanish  troops  in  that  country. 

Stanhope,  (James,  Earl  of,)  was  born  in  1673,  and  died  in  1721. 
After  distinguishing  himself  in  military  affairs,  he  became  a  minister 
of  state,  on  the  accession  of  George  the  First  to  the  throne  of  Eng 
land,  A.  D.  1714. 

Strada  coperta,  (Italian,)  a  covered  way.     See  Counterscarp. 

Styria,  a  province  of  the  Austrian  empire,  on  the  west  of  Hungary. 

Sultan,  an  Arabic  word,  signifying  mighty,  the  title  of  the  Turkish 
emperors. 

Sursee,  a  town  of  the  canton  of  Lucerne,  in  Switzerland,  on  the  Lake 
of  Sempach. 

Susa,  a  celebrated  city  in  Asia,  the  capital  of  the  ancient  Persian  em- 
pire, situated  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  north  of  the  head 
ofths  Gulf  of  Persia. 

Sylvius  JEneas,  of  the  Italian  family  of  Piccolomini,  became  Pope  in 
1458,  under  the  title  of  Pius  II.  He  was  a  learned  man,  and  au- 
thor of  some  historical  works. 

Syphax,  a  king  of  the  Masaesylians,  (an  African  tribe,  living  near  the 
Mediterranean,)  who  forsook  the  alliance  of  the  Romans,  to  unite 
himself  with  the  Carthaginians,  but  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner 
by  Scipio.  He  died  B.  C.  201 


376  GLOSSARY. 

Syracuse,  in  the  southeast  part  of  Sicily,  anciently  the  chief  city  of 
the  island,  when  it  contained  three  hundred  thousand  inhabitants. 
At  present,  it  numbers  about  fifteen  thousand. 

Talisman,  (Arabic,  figure,)  any  figure  or  object,  natural  or  artificial, 
prepared  with  certain  magical  ceremonies,  and  supposed  to  be  of 
sovereign  power  in  averting  danger  or  calamity. 

Taurus,  a  celebrated  chain  of  mountains,  in  the  eastern  parfbf  Asiatic 
Turkey. 

Taylor,  (Thomas,)  the  translator  of  Plato,  was  born  in  London, 
A.  D.  1758.  Making  himself  a  scholar,  in  spite  of  every  obstacle, 
struggling  with  poverty,  ill  treatment,  and  ill  health,  with  great  per- 
severance and  little  patronage,  he  devoted  himself  to  letters,  and 
made  translations  of  several  of  the  Greek  philosophers. 

Tegeatce,  inhabitants  of  Tegea,  (now  Moklia,)  a  town  of  Arcadia,  in 
the  Peloponnesus,  Greece. 

Templars,  a  celebrated  order  of  knights,  established  A.  D.  1119,  for 
the  protection  of  the  pilgrims  on  the  roads  in  Palestine,  and  after- 
wards devoted  to  the  defence  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  (see  Jerusa- 
lem) against  the  Saracens.  The  order  became  very  powerful  and 
wealthy,  but  drew  upon  itself  suspicion  and  odium,  and  was  abol- 
ished early  in  the  fourteenth  century,  with  many  circumstances  of 
aggravated  oppression  and  cruelty  towards  its  members. 

Tergowe,  another  name  for  Gouda,  which  see. 

Teutonic,  Germanic,  belonging  to  Germany. 

Thebans,  inhabitants  of  Thebes,  a  celebrated  city  of  ancient  Greece, 
the  capital  of  Boeotia,  a  region  northwest  of  Attica. 

Thermopylae,  a  narrow  pass,  leading  from  Thessaly  into  Locris  and 
Phocis,  between  a  large  ridge  of  mountains  on  the  west,  and  the 
sea  ;  so  called  from  therma,  warm  springs,  and  pyla,  (which  see,) 
because  there  were  warm  springs  near  it.  It  was  five  or  six  miles 
long,  but  only  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  wide, 
and  in  some  places  only  twenty-five  feet.  The  great  event  which 
has  made  the  name  of  Thermopylae  immortal,  is  described  in  the  first 
extract  in  this  Volume. 

Theseus,  a  celebrated  hero  of  the  fabulous  ages,  and  King  of  Athens. 
The  Athenians,  having  been  defeated  in  a  war  with  Minos,  King  of 
Crete,  were  obliged  to  send  him  a  yearly  tribute  of  seven  boys,  and 
as  many  girls,  as  the  price  of  peace.  These  youths  and  maidens, 
according  to  the  fable,  were  to  be  devoured  by  a  monster,  called  the 
Minotaur,  half  man  and  half  bull.  Theseus  went  to  Crete  as  one 
of  the  seven,  destroyed  the  monster,  and  delivered  his  country  from 
the  tribute.  Theseus  lived  about  B.  C.  1200  or  1300. 

Thespians,  inhabitants  of  Thespia,  a  town  of  ancient  Greece,  in  Boeotia. 

Thessaly,  the  northern  part  of  ancient  Greece,  now  forming  the  south- 
eastern part  of  European  Turkey. 

Thucydides,  the  greatest  of  the  Greek  historians,  born  at  Athens,  B.  C. 
470.  His  history  of  the  war  Ix-twrm  tin-  Atlii'iii.-un  .-irui  IVloponne- 
sians  was  written  in  banishment.  He  is  the  earliest  historian  who 
wrote  in  a  truly  philosophical  spirit,  searching  out  the  causes  of 
events,  and  the  springs  of  actions,  and  r.-n-i  d  ln-tory  to  its  true  dig- 
nity. He  lived  to  the  age  of  seventy  or  eighty  years. 


GLOSSARY.  377 

Tiara,  originally,  a  cap  or  high  turban,  worn  by  the  Persian  kings. 
The  Pope's  tiara  is  a  high  cap,  surrounded  by  three  crowns,  rising 
one  above  another. 

Tiber,  a  river  of  Italy,  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  in  length, 
flowing  into  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  river  on 
which  stood  the  queen  of  cities,  "eternal"  Rome,  but  is  a  small 
and  turbid  stream. 

Tomb  of  Christ,  see  Jerusalem. 

Totila,  a  King  of  the  Goths  in  Italy,  from  541  to  his  death  in  552. 
He  twice  took  the  city  of  Rome  ;  and,  after  the  second  time,  re- 
paired some  of  the  walls  and  edifices  which  he  had  destroyed  at  first. 
His  valor  is  said,  by  the  historians  of  the  time,  to  have  been  tem- 
pered by  humanity  and  justice. 

Trachinia,  a  small  country  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Greece,  on  the 
Maliac  Gulf,  or  Gulf  of  Zeiton. 

Traverse,  a  work  of  fortification  thrown  up  across  a  plain  or  street 

Treves,  a  city  of  Prussia,  on  the  Moselle,  near  France. 

Tribunes,  see  Plebeian. 

Tribunitian,  of,  or  belonging  to,  the  tribunes. 

Tudela,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Ebro.  At  this  place,  a  battle  was 
fought,  in  November,  1808,  between  the  Spaniards  under  CastanoSj 
a  distinguished  general,  and  the  French  ;  the  latter  being  victorious. 

Tunny,  a  large  fish,  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  forming  an 
extensive  branch  of  commerce  there. 

Turcomans,  a  wandering  race,  whose  tribes  fill  many  of  the  districts 
of  western  Asia.  They  are  Mohammedans. 

Tuscans,  see  Etruria. 

Tyrol,  a  province  of  the  Austrian  empire,  lying  south  of  Bavaria 
and  east  of  Switzerland.  It  is  the  most  mountainous  country  in 
Europe. 

United  Provinces,  the  name  given  to  the  seven  States  of  Holland,  or 
the  Netherlands,  which  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain,  and  became 
independent. 

Unterwalden,  a  canton  of  Switzerland. 

Uri,  a  canton  of  Switzerland. 

Valerius  Jlntias,  see  Jlntias. 

Valet  de  chambre,  (French,  a  servant  of  the  chamber,)  a  body  ser- 
vant ;  an  immediate  personal  attendant. 

Vandals,  a  tribe  from  the  north  of  Germany,  who  made  war  upon  the 
Romans,  from  the  third  to  the  sixth  century.  Italy  was  ravaged  by 
them  in  the  fifth  century  ;  Rome  was  plundered,  and  works  of  art 
despoiled  with  the  most  savage  fury. 

Vatican,  a  sumptuous  palace  in  Rome,  built  by  several  successive 
popes,  before  1600.  It  contains  noble  collections  of  works  of  art, 
and  a  large  and  valuable  library.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  Pope, 
in  Winter  and  Spring  ;  and  the  word  Vatican  is  therefore  sometimes 
used  to  signify  the  papal  government. 

Veii,  see  Camillus. 

Venice,  a  city  of  Austrian  Italy,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
Adriatic  sea.  It  is  built  upon  a  collection  of  small  islands,  seventy- 
two  in  number,  and  intersected  with  numerous  canals,  which  supply 
32* 


378  GLOSSARY. 

enirely  all  the  purposes  of  streets  ;  boats  (called  gondolas)  being 
used  in  place  of  carriages  or  wagons. 

Vicar  of  Chr*t,  see  Pope. 

Vienna,  the  capital  city  of  Austria,  containing  about  three  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants. 

The  Virgin,  the  title  particularly  applied  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  the 
mother  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Vizier,  a  title  of  honor  with  the  Turks,  belonging  to  all  the  highest 
pachas,  (see  Bashaw.)  The  six  members  of  the  council  of  state 
are  also  called  viziers.  The  grand  vizier  is  the  prime  minister  and 
representative  of  the  Sultan,  and  rules  with  absolute  power  in  his 
name. 

Vogt,  see  Bailiff. 

Walachia,  a  province  tributary  to  Turkey,  lying  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Danube. 

Walloons,  the  inhabitants  of  the  district  situated  between  the  rivers 
Scheldt  and  Lys,  included  partly  in  Belgium  and  partly  in  France. 
The  Walloons  formerly  furnished  some  of  the  most  effective  of  the 
Spanish  troops. 

Wiclif,  or  Wicklif,  (John,)  was  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  about 
the  year  1324.  Being  a  bold  thinker  in  religious  matters,  he  took 
a  prominent  stand  against  the  encroachments  and  corruptions  of 
the  Pope  and  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  and  endeavored  to  restore 
the  apostolical  simplicity  and  purity  of  the  primitive  Christian 
Church.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learning,  and  an  ardent  Reform- 
er. He  disavowed  the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  and  con- 
sidered the  confession  of  sins  to  a  priest,  when  sincerely  repented 
of,  as  useless.  Among  his  other  numerous  writings,  he  finished  a 
translation  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  He  died  of  a  paralytic  attack, 
in  1384. 

Wolsey,  (Thomas,)  Cardinal,  an  eminent  minister  of  state  under 
Henry  the  Eighth  of  England,  was  born  in  1471.  He  was  a  favor- 
ite with  that  Monarch,  and  dignities  and  offices  were  profusely 
heaped  upon  him.  His  natural  pride  and  ostentation  caused  him  to 
display  great  state  and  magnificence,  though  he  also  manifested 
great  munificence  for  the  advancement  of  learning.  He  fell,  how- 
ever, under  the  displeasure  of  his  master,  was  deposed  from  JIM 
dignities,  and  died  at  the  age  of  sixty  years. 

Worms,  an  ancient  city  of  Germany,  near  the  Rhine,  containing  about 
six  thousand  inhabitants.  It  derives  an  historic  interest  from  having 
been  frequently  the  seat  of  the  diet  of  the  empire  ;  and  the  town- 
house  is  still  to  be  seen,  in  which  Luther  appeared  in  1521,  aa  men- 
tioned in  this  Volume. 

Xenophon,  a  celebrated  historian  and  general  of  Athens,  who  flour- 
ished about  the  year  B.  C.  400.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  and 
we  are  indebted  to  him  for  much  light  upon  the  philosophy  of  his 
master. 

Xerxes,  King  of  Persia,  famous  for  his  unsuccessful  attempt  to  con- 
quer Greece,  (ace  pages  9,  &c.)  He  began  to  reign  B.  C.  485, 
and  was  assassin-it,  <i  in  the  twenty-first  year  of  his  reign. 

Yare,  ready,  eager,  brisk. 


GLOSSARY.  379 

Yoke,  (in  ancient  military  affairs,)  a  frame  formed  of  two  upright 
spears  and  one  placed  across,  under  which  vanquished  enemies  were 
made  to  pass,  without  arms,  and  also  without  their  upper  garments, 
as  a  token  of  submission. 

Zug,  a  mountainous  canton  of  Switzerland,  with  a  capital  town  of  the 
same  name. 

Zurich,  a  city  in  the  north  part  of  Switzerland,  capital  of  a  canton  of 
the  same  name,  and  situated  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  beau- 
tiful Lake  of  Zurich.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  magnificent  mountain 
•cenery  of  the  ulterior  and  southern  districts. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Aarau,  Avoyer  of,  killed,  96. 

Aarberg,  Peter  of,  94. 

Aarburg ,  Ulrich  of,  93. 

Aargau,  89.  Avoyers  of,  94. 
Lords  of,  buried,  97. 

Abou  Ayub,  139. 

Abrocomes,  son  of  Darius,  killed 
at  Thermopylae,  21. 

Acarnania,  20. 

Acca,  see  Laurentia. 

Achsemenes,  on  movements  against 
Sparta,  25. 

Achaia,  Xerxes' march  through,!  1. 

Acheloum,  surrender  of,  113. 

Achmet  Basha,  188.  Attacks  by, 
189,197,198.  Unsuccessful,198. 
Takes  command  of  the  Turks, 
206.  Attempts  the  bastion  of 
Spain,  206.  Begins  his  batter- 
ies again,  213.  Ruins  the  bas- 
tion of  Italy,  215.  Tears  an 
old  treaty  to  pieces,  227.  Trea- 
ty signed  by,  in  the  Sultan's 
name,  228.  Interview  between 
the  Grand-master  and,  228. 

Achsen,  85. 

Actium,  Cleopatra's  fleet  at,  320, 
note. 

Aculeo,  Caius  Furius,  67. 

Adam,  Philip  de  Villiers  de  1'Isle, 
Grand-master  of  the  Knights  of 
Rhodes,  164.  Preparations  of, 
for  the  siege  of  Rhodes,  164, 
171,  183.  Measure  by,  for 
subsisting  the  people,  164-166. 
Honors  Martinengo,  169.  Pro- 
voked with  the  Italian  Knights, 
170  ;  his  reception  of  them,  171. 
Applies  for  succors,  171,  215. 
Reviews  troops,  172.  Personal 


activity  and  supervision  of,  173. 
Palace  of,  173.  Distribution  of 
troops  by,  175.  Assigns  to 
Knights  their  employments,  175. 
Defends  St.  Marie  de  la  Vic- 
toire,  175,  181.  Mission  by,  to 
Lycia,  177.  Orders  fasting  and 
prayer,  before  the  siege,  179. 
Piety  of,  179.  Reception  of  the 
governor  of  Rhodes  by,  180. 
Discontinues  sallies,  187.  Re- 
enforces  St.  Nicholas,  190.  Pro- 
vides for  powder,  192.  Bravery 
of,  at  the  bastion  of  England, 
195,  201  ;  of  Italy,  196.  Pre- 
pares against  a  general  assault, 
200.  Encouragements  given  by, 
200.  Bravery  of,  for  the  post 
of  Spain,  203,  207,  208,  217, 
225,  226.  Fills  the  post  of 
Martinengo,  207,  208.  Influ- 
ence of  his  example,  208.  Not 
succored,  214.  Measures  taken 
by,  214.  Demolishes  churches, 
215.  Refuses  to  negotiate,  219, 
222.  Difficulty  of,  with  Greeks, 
220,  22*.  Advice  to,  by  a 
council,  221.  Consents  to  ne- 
gotiate 223.  Old  treaty  sent 
by,  to  Soliman,  226.  Interview 
between  Achmet  and ,  228.  Re- 
cep*?.p*i  of,  by  Soliman,  229. 
Reply  by,  to  offers,  229.  Visit- 
ed by  Soliman,  230.  Tries  to 
save  Prince  Amurath,  232. 
Takes  leave  of  the  Sultan,  232. 
See  Achmet,  Knights,  Rhodes, 
Soliman  II.,  and  Turks. 

Adolphus  of  Nassau,  74. 

Adrian,  Emperor,  mausoleum  of, 
243,  note. 


382 


INDEX. 


Adrian,  VI.,  Pope,  does  not  suc- 
cor Rhodes,  213,  214.  Sends 
troops  to  Milan  and  Lombardy, 
214.  Agreement  of  Charles  V. 
and,  234. 

Adrian,  a  magistrate  in  Leyden, 
296. 

Adrianople,  visited  by  Phranza, 
134.  Mohammed  II.  returns  to, 
138.  Decline  of,  138. 

J2gean  Sea,  72. 

^Egina,  13. 

^Emilia,  wife  of  Scipio,  on  the 
marriage  of  her  daughter  to 
Gracchus,  70. 

^Eschylus,  at  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon, 10. 

/Esculapius,  39. 

Africa,  conquered  by  Scipio,  64. 

Africanus,  see  Scipio. 

Aga  of  the  Janizaries,  188,  203. 
Maintains  his  ground,  204. 
Takes  possession  of  Rhodes, 
227,  228. 

Agesilaus,  13. 

Agis,  13. 

Agnes,  Queen,  97. 

Agricultural  priesthood,  40. 

Aiala,  Lopez  d',  177. 

Albert,  King  of  Germany,  son  of 
Rudolph  of  Ilapsburg,  74.  De- 
sires a  new  dukedom  in  Helve- 
tia, 74.  Adolphus  of  Nassau 
defeated  by,  74.  Proposition 
by,  to  Uri,  Schwytz,  and  Un- 
terwalden,  74  ;  appoints  Austri- 
an officers  over  them,  74  ;  im- 
perial bailiffs,  75.  ifis  treatment 
of  messengers,  75.  Sends  two 
bailiff's  to  Swiss  districts,  76. 
Complaints  to,  against  bailiffs, 
76.  In  Lower  Austria,  at  the 
death  of  Gessler,  86. 

Albert  of  Hohenrechberg,  95. 

Albert  of  Mullinen,  Knight,  94. 

Albert  VI.,  see  Archduke. 

Alcamones,  13. 

Alexander  VI.,  Pope,  treatment 
of  Zizim  by,  232,  note. 

AJgiria,  attack  on  French  in,  827, 
note. 


Alpenus,  the  town,  18. 

Alpheus,   distinguished   at  Ther 
mopylae,  22. 

Alpnach,  88. 

Altdorff,  castle  built  near,  79. 

Altenstein,  Hund,  lord  of,  156. 

Amain*,  merchants  of,  establish  a 
hospital  for  pilgrims,  159. 

Amaral,  Andrew  d',  Chancellor, 
hates  Adam,  164.  Commis- 
sioner at  Rhodes,  165.  Per- 
fidious advice  of,  165.  With 
a  corps  de  reserve,  176.  False 
report  by,  respecting  powder, 
191.  Account  of  the  treason 
of,  at  Rhodes,  209.  Seized, 
210.  Persuaded  the  Sultan  to 
invade  Rhodes,  211.  Fate  of, 
212.  Fontanus  on,  212,  213. 

Ambarvalia,  the  festival,  40,  note. 

Ambustus,  Quintus  Fabius,  51. 

Amphictyon,  shrine  of,  12. 

Amphictyons,  seats  of  the,  12.. 
Council  of  the,  set  a  price  on 
the  head  of  Ephialtes,  17.  In 
scriptions  by,  on  a  tomb  at  Ther- 
mopyla?,  23. 

Amurath,  Prince,  attempt  to  save, 
231. 

Anatolia,  123,  129,  133,  188. 

Anaxander,  13. 

Anaxandrides,  father  of  Cleome- 
nes,  Dorieus,  and  Leonidas,  13. 

Andelot,  Chevalier  d',  repulses 
Turks  under  Peri,  197. 

Angioli,  264. 

Anopse,  the  path,  near  Thermopy- 
lae, Xerxes  informed  of,  17. 
Defended  by  the  Phoceans,  18. 
Account  of  it,  18. 

Ansaldi,  John,  fate  of,  256. 

Anthela,  situation  of,  12. 

Antias,  Valerius,  60,  67. 

Anticyra,  situation  of,  11.  Ephi- 
altcs  killed  at,  17. 

Antiochus,  said  to  pay  court  to 
Scipio,  61.  Removed  beyond 
Mount  Taurus,  64.  Order  re- 
specting money  received  of,  65. 
I'urpureo  on  the  money  receiv- 
ed of,  66.  Convictions  for  bri- 


INDEX. 


383 


bery  by,  67.     The  war  with, 
assigned  to  Scipio,  71.   Circum 
stances  in  the  action  with,  71. 
Hannibal  with,  71.      Territory 
and  wealth  of,  72. 
Antony  of  Port,  92. 
Antwerpe,  fire  of,  324. 
Anytus   hates  and  persecutes  So- 
crates, 31. 

Apidanus,  the  river,  11. 
Apollo,  Carnian  festival  in  honor 

of,  14,  note. 
Apollodorus,  present  at  the  death 

of  Socrates,  38. 
Apology,  of   Plato,  30-32.      Of 

Xenophon,  31,  32. 
Apparitor,  275. 
Apulia,  Romans  go  to  relieve,  and 

are  ensnared,  42. 
Arabs,  attack  by  the,  on  French 

in  Algiria,  327,  note. 
Aracela,  Cardinal,  treatment  of,  at 

Rome,  256. 
Aragon,  Knights  of  the  Language 

of,  160. 

Aragonese      at     Zaragoza,     328. 
Could  not  remove  the  slain,  330. 
Arcadia,  soldiers  from,  at  Ther- 
mopylae, 12. 

Archduke,  [Albert  VI.  of  Spain,] 
at  the  siege  of  Ostend,  297. 
Raises  a  battery  near  St.  Alberto, 
298.  Advised  to  abandon  the 
siege,  299.  Orders  by,  299. 
Retires  to  Ghent,  299.  Visits 
Ostend,  after  its  surrender,  306, 
307.  Commends  Spinola,  307. 
Archelaus,  13. 

Archipelago,  isles  of  the,  121. 
Arcillan,  Philip  de,  bravery  and 

death  of,  199. 
Aretino,  Leonardo,  110. 
Argans,  bailiffs  of  Austria,  89. 
Argau,  see  Aargau. 
Argillemont,  killed,  195. 
•Arginusse,  vote  as  to  generals  in 

the  battle  of,  31. 
Argosies,  317. 
Aristides,  at  Marathon,  10. 
Aristodemus,  13.     Treatment  of. 
for  not  remaining  at  Thermopy- 


lae, 23.    Bravery  of,  a  Plataeae, 
23. 

Aristomachus,  13. 

Ariston,  Demaratus  son  of,  15,  26. 

Aristophanes,  Socrates  ridiculed  in 

The  Clouds  by,  30,  note,  32. 
Aristotle,  Plato  master  of,  28. 
Armada,  destruction  of  the,  308. 
Account  of  the,  309,  317,  318. 
Measures  to  prevent  its  commu- 
nication with  the  Duke  of  Par- 
ma, 314.    Riding  in  the  Tagus, 
316.      Passes   to    the    Groyne, 
319.     Delayed,  319.     Plan  for 
the,   319.      Sails   for  England, 
319.    Comes  to  Plymouth,  321. 
In  the  form  of  a  crescent,  321. 
Action  with  the,  321.     At  Ca- 
lais, 323.     Concert  between  the 
Duke  of  Parma  and   the,  323. 
Visitors  to  the,  323.    Fired ,  324. 
Defeated,  325.    Proceeds  to  the 
Orcades,  325.     Number  of  ves- 
sels saved  and  lost,  325,   326. 
See  Howard,  Perez,  and  Parma. 
Army,  see  Roman. 
Arnold  von  Melchtal,  see  Melchtal. 
Arnold  Strutthan,  see  Winkelried. 
Arsamis,  descendants  of,  21. 
Artanes,  relatives  of,  21. 
Arthur,  Prince,  Catharine  widow 

of,  271,  279,  281. 
Artillery,  at  the  siege  of  Constanti- 
nople, 119,  130.     Reunion  of 
the  ancient  and  modern,   120. 
See  Cannon. 

Arvina,  Aulus  Cornelius,  a  herald 
to  the  Samnites,  57.  Struck  by 
Postumius,  57,  58.  Addressed 
by  Pontius,  58. 

Asia,  Scipio's  commission  in,  65. 
Asopus,  the  river,  12,  18. 
Athenades,  Ephialtes  killed  by,  17. 
Athenians  defeat  Persians  at  Mar- 
athon, 10. 

Athens,  13.  Teachings,  of  the  So- 
phists at,  28,  31  ;  of  Socrates 
at,  28,  31.  Character  of  the 
court  of  Helisea  at,  32.  Usage 
at,  delaying  execution,  34.  Sa- 
cred vessel  despatched  from,  to 


384 


INDEX. 


the  island  of  Delos,  annually. 
34. 

Attenghansen,  95. 

Attica,  Persians  defeated  at  Mar- 
athon in,  10.  Institution  in 
commemoration  of  the  deliver- 
ance of,  34. 

Atzelen,  76,  83. 

Aubusson,  Peter  d',  Mohammed 
II.  repulsed  by,  161.  Old  trea- 
ty with,  226. 

Aulamo,  Chevalier,  action  of,  with 
Turkish  galleys,  214. 

Austria,  Swiss  districts  desired  to 
become  subjects  of  the  House 
of,  74.  High  justice  adminis- 
tered by  officers  of,  among  the 
Swiss,  75.  Apprehensions  by 
the  Swiss  of  domination  by,  75. 
Gift  to  the  magistrates  of  Brem- 
garten  by,  96,  note.  Turkish 
attempts  on,  161,  note. 

Austrians,  flight  of  the,  at  Sem- 
pach,  94.  Horses  of  the,  car- 
ried away,  94.  See  Leopold, 
and  Swiss. 

Auvergne, Knights  of  the  Language 
of,  160.  Fortifications  added  to 
the  bastion  of,  at  Rhodes,  172. 
Defence  of  the,  175,  176,  199. 
False  alarm  at,  192.  Mines 
sprung  under,  198. 

Avarice,  an  inventor  of  torture, 
255,  note. 

Ayub,  Abou,  139. 

Azymites,  116,  117. 

B. 

Baden,  89. 

Bailiffs,  asked  for,  by  tho  Swiss, 
75.  Appointed,  75.  Oppres- 
sive, 75.  Administer  high  jus- 
tice in  the  three  districts,  75. 
Demand  respecting,  made  of 
Albert,  75.  Two,  sent  to  the 
Swiss,  76.  Oppressions  by,  and 
representations  to  Albert,  76. 
Worse  cruelties  by,  76-81. 

Rajazet,  Sultan,  226,  231,  note. 

Baker,  George,  extract  from  tin- 
translation  of  Livy  by,  on  the 


impeachment  of  the  Scipios,  60. 

Balestein,  Leonard,  Metropolitan 
of  the  Latins  at  Rhodes,  179. 

Barbaran,  John  de,  175.  Killed, 
190. 

Barbarians,  foreign  nations  called, 
by  the  Greeks,  16,  note. 

Barousa,  decline  of,  138. 

Bartholomew,  sally  under,  190. 

Basha,  123.  See  Achmet,  Calil, 
Ferhat,  Palaeologus,  and  Peri. 

Bath  Place,  274,  283. 

Battles,  of  Thermopyla?,  9.  Of 
Plataeae,  23,  29.  Of  Arginusoe, 
31.  At  Sempach,  89.  On  strat- 
agem in,  91.  On  success  in. 
97. 

Baumgarten,  76,  83.    See  Cunrat. 

Bavaria,  see  Lewis. 

Bayard,  commended,  234,  note. 

Bayonne,  Bishop  of,  278. 

Beer,  sent  to  Luther,  151. 

Begler-bei  of  Anatolia,  188. 

Begler-bei  of  Romania,  188,  189. 

Bell,  Dr.,  Bishop  of  Worcester, 
275. 

Bentivoglio,  Guy,  Cardinal,  The 
Sieges  of  Leyden  and  Ostend  by, 
287.  Facts  respecting,  287 
Works  by,  287. 

Berenfels,  three,  killed,  95 

Beringer,  see  Landenberg. 

Berlepsch,  John  von,  156. 

Bern,  97. 

Bidoux,  see  Prejan. 

Bizon,  surrender  of,  113. 

Black  Friars,  274. 

BoDotia,  soldiers  from, at  Thermop 

Boiling  oil,  197,  201. 

Boisot,  Lewis,    Admiral   of  IIol 

land,  on  supplying  Leyden  with 

provisions,  290.     Endeavors  to 

succor  Leyden,  292. 
Boleyn,  Anne,  273. 
Bonaldi  carries  wine    to  Rhodes, 

166. 

Bonaparte,  Francis,  237,  note. 
Honapartc,    Janu-s,   The    Sack  of 
.ie,  in  1527,  by,  233,  237. 

Facts  respecting,  236.     A  Ro 


INDEX. 


385 


man  Catholic  priest,  240,  note. 

Bonaparte,  John,  237. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph,  236,  note. 

Bonaparte,  Lewis  Mary  Fortuna- 
tus,  237,  note. 

Bonaparte,  Louis,  236. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  see  Napo- 
leon. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon  Louis,  236, 
237. 

Boniface,  John,  176. 

Bonneval,  Chevalier  de,  176. 

Bonstetten,  Hans  of,  91.  Troops 
from,  feared,  93. 

Books,  Luther's  replies  to  charges 
respecting,  147. 

Borgia,  Peter,  294,  note. 

Bosio,  Anthony,  despatched  to 
Candia  for  wines  and  reenforce- 
ments,  166.  Escape  of,  with 
Martinengo,  168. 

Bosnia,  Turks  aided  from,  181. 

Bosphorus,  Turkish  fleet  at  the, 
121.  Entered  by  the  Christian 
squadron,  122. 

Bourbon,  Commander  of,  bravery 
of,  at  the  post  of  Spain,  at 
Rhodes,  204.  Account  of  the 
siege  of  Rhodes,  by,  209  ;  of 
the  treason  of  d'Amaral,  209. 
See  Charles. 

Bracci,  Bernard,  treatment  of,  257. 

Brandenburg,  see  Joachim. 

Brandis,  Frederic  bastard  of,  93. 

Bredene,  fort,  near  Ostend,  297. 
Blocking  the  channel  of,  298, 
299.  Bucquoy  commander  at, 
298.  Progress  at,  300. 

Breisach,  Burkard  Gessner,  of,  95. 

Bremgarten,  faithfulness  of,  96. 

Britto,  Chevalier  de,  172. 

Brunnen,  Tell  to  go  to,  85. 

Brunswick,  see  Eric,  and  William. 

Bucerus,  144. 

Buck,  John,  165,  176.  Brave 
charge  by,  198.  Killed,  198. 

Bucquoy,  Count,  diversion  by, 
at  Ostend,  298.  To  advance 
works,  299.  Diligence  of,  300. 

Bulls,  first  words  of,  142,  note. 

Burgonians,  302-304. 

33 


Burgundy,  dukedom  of,  demand- 
ed by  Charles  V.,  234.  Re- 
signed, 235.  Protestation  against 
surrendering,. 235. 

Burgundy,  Philip  of,  173. 

Burita,  Countess,  conduct  of,  at 
Zaragoza,  333. 

Burnet,  Gilbert,  Bishop,  276,  note. 

Byzantine  Caesars,  128. 

Byzantine  Empire,  condition  of 
the,  before  the  conquest  of  Con- 
stantinople by  the  Turks,  111. 

Byzantine  libraries,  fate  of  the, 
136. 

Byzantine  treasures,  126. 

C. 

Cadiz,  Drake  destroys  ships  at, 
309. 

Gaesarea  Augusta,  Zaragoza,  327, 
note. 

Cresars,  the  Byzantine,  128. 

Calais,  the  Armada  at,  323. 

Calatia,  Samnite  soldiers  sent  to, 
as  shepherds,  42. 

Calavius,  Ofilius,  on  the  Samnite 
victory  over  the  Romans,  50. 

Calil  Bashaw,  123. 

Calvinus,  Titus  Veturius,  consul 
of  Rome,  41,  53. 

Camerino,  Hieronymus  de,  fate  of, 
255. 

Camillus,  47. 

Cammerach,  Cardinal  von,  silen 
ces  Huss,  102. 

Campanians,  see  Capuans. 

Campeggio,  Cardinal,  270.  Re- 
ception of,  in  England,  274. 
Visits  the  Q,ueen,  283.  Will  not 
give  judgement,  before  consult- 
ing the  Pope,  285.  Adjourns 
the  court,  285,  note,  286. 

Campen,  Van,  288.  On  a  Dutch 
medal,  310. 

Candia,  archers  and  bowmen  of, 
165.  Wine  and  reenforcementa 
from,  for  Rhodes,  166,  167. 
Martinengo  escapes  from,  to 
Rhodes,  167. 

Cannon,  at  the  siege  of  Constanti- 
nople,   118,    119.     Discharged 
G.  E. 


386 


INDEX. 


seven  times  in  a  day,  119.  Oil 
to  prevent  the  explosion  of, 
119.  See  Artillery. 

Cantacuzene,  131. 

Canterbury,  Lord  Archbishop  of, 
and  Henry  VIII.,  280. 

Caparosa,  333. 

Capiculi,  113. 

Capon,  Hugh,  177. 

Captives,  ancient  ideas  as  to,  135. 

Capua,  attacked  by  Samnites,  40. 
Relieved  by  Romans,  40.  Pity 
at,  for  the  Roman  army,  49. 
Remarks  in  the  senate-house  of, 
respecting  the  Roman  defeat, 50. 

Capuans,  proposition  by,  to  the 
Romans,  40. 

Capuchins,  convent  of  the,  at 
Zaragoza,  336. 

Cardinals'  hats,  sold,  266. 

Caretto,  Grand-master,  197. 

Carlisle,  Bishop  of,  282. 

Carlstadt,  disturbances  by,  157, 
note. 

Carneus,  Carnian  festival  named 
from,  14,  note. 

Carnian  festival,  14. 

Carrack8,  317. 

Carrieres,  Francis  de,  175. 

Carthage,  Hannibal  banished  from, 
60, 66.  Made  tributary  to  Rome, 
64. 

Carthaginians,  62.  Scipio's  tri- 
umph over,  62,  64,  65. 

Castelane,  Guyot  de,  176. 

Castelnan,  killed,  95. 

Castile,  Knights  of  the  Language 
of,  160. 

Castle  built  by  orders  of  Gessler, 
near  Altdorff,  79.  Name  given 
to  it,  80.  Destroyed,  88. 

Catharine  II.,  Panin  minister  to, 
244,  note. 

Catharine  of  Aragon,  Queen  of 
Henry  VIII.,  270.  Marriage 
and  parentage  of,  271.  Widow 
of  Prince  Arthur,  271.  Dis- 
pensation prantcd  for  the  mar- 
riage of,  271.  Aunt  of  Charles 
V.,  273.  Situation  of,  for  a 
trial,  273.  Lodged  at  Bride- 


well, 274.  Summoned  to  the  le 
gatine  court,  274.  Counsel  for, 
275.  Called  in  court,  276. 
Her  appeal  to  the  King,  276. 
Leaves  the  court,  278.  Meas- 
ures for  influencing,  282.  Con- 
versation of,  with  the  Cardinals, 
283.  See  Henry  VIII. 

Catholics,  see  Protestants. 

Cato,  Aulus  Hostilius,  charges 
against,  67.  Convicted,  67. 
Condemned,  70. 

Cato,  Lucius  Hostilius,  charges 
against,  67. 

Cato,  Marcus  Porcius,  srfeered  at 
Scipio's  character,  65.  Suppo- 
sed to  have  instigated  the  Peti- 
lii,  65.  Advocates  an  order 
respecting  Scipio,  after  his 
death,  66. 

Catris,Walloon  camp-master,  304. 

Caudine  Forks,  account  of  the 
place,  43.  Surrender  of  the 
Roman  army  in  the,  47. 

Caudine  peace,  remarks  on  the, 
47,  50.  Consideration  of  the, 
by  the  Roman  senate,  52. 
Speeches  respecting  the,  52. 
See  Caudium,  Pontius,  and  Ro- 
man. 

Caudium,  Livy's  account  of  the 
surrender  of  the  Roman  army 
near,  40.  Encampment  of  the 
Samnites  near,  42.  Stratagem 
practised  on  the  Roman  army, 
43.  Visit  to,  by  Romans,  to  sur- 
render themselves,  56,  57.  A 
Roman  army  marches  to,  with 
the  heralds,  56.  See  Caudine, 
Pontius,  and  Roman. 

Cavaliers,  188. 

Cavalry,  trial  between  Grecian 
and  Persian,  in  Thessaly,  11. 
On  attacks  by,  90. 

Cavendish,  George,  on  Henry 
VIII.,  King  of  England,  and 
Catharine  of  Aragon,  hia 
Queen,  before  the  Icgatine 
court,  270,  274.  His  Life  of 
Wolsey,  270.  Obligations  of 
Shakspeare  to,  271. 


INDEX. 


387 


Cecill,  Sir  Robert,  321. 

Cecill,  Sir  Thomas,  321. 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,  on  the  death 
of  Charles  of  Bourbon,  239. 

Cepas,  Don  Lopez,  sent  as  deputy 
to  the  Sultan,  225. 

Cercopes,  18. 

Ceres  Amphictyonis,  temple  of,  12. 

Ceri,  Renzo  da,  Captain,  238,  note, 
242,  245. 

Chagai:,  Constantinople  defied  the, 
132. 

Chains,  across  the  harbor  at  Con- 
stantinople, 115,  134.  Across 
the  port  of  Rhodes,  172. 

Chalcocondyles,  114. 

Charles  V.,  proposition  to  the  Diet 
by,  respecting  Luther's  writings 
141.  Grants  Luther  a  safecon- 
duct  to  Worms,  142.  First  Di- 
et of,  at  Worms,  142.  Aided 
in  his  election  by  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  142.  His  proposition 
to  the  Elector  as  to  a  safecon 
duct  for  Luther,  144,  note. 
Cites  Luther  to  appear  at 
Worms,  144,  note  ;  grants  him 
time  to  reply  to  charges,  147  ; 
age  of,  at  this  time,  149,  note. 
Opposes  violation  of  Luther's 
safeconduct,  153.  Luther  writes 
to,  155.  Proclaims  Luther  an 
outlaw,  157,  note.  John  of 
Austria  son  of,  161.  At  war 
with  Francis  I. ,  at  the  time  of 
the  siege  of  Rhodes,  213.  Con- 
temporary monarchs  with,  233. 
Disputes  between  Francis  I. 
and,  233  ;  first  war  between 
them,  234.  Secret  agreement 
of,  with  Popes,  234.  Openly 
demands  Milan  and  Burgundy, 
234.  Clement  VII.  sends  let- 
ters and  negotiators  to,  264. 
Conditions  offered  by,  264. 
Nephew  of  Catharine,  273.  Ef- 
fects an  adjournment  of  a  lega- 
tine  court,  285,  note. 
Charles  of  Bourbon,  Duke,  in  the 
service  of  Charles  V.,  goes  to 
rescue  Pavia,  235.  Marches  to 


Rome,  235,  236.  Mortally 
wounded,  236,  239.  Appeals 
to  the  soldiers,  237.  Circum- 
stances connected  with  his  death, 
239.  Successor  of,  248. 

Charnock,  318. 

Chilon,  on  the  island  of  Cythera, 
25. 

Chios,  Leonard  of,  114.  Ships 
from,  121. 

Chosroes,  defied  by  Constantino- 
ple, 132. 

Church,  abuses  reformed  in  the 
Roman  Catholic,  308. 

Cibo,  Cardinal,  255. 

Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius,  on  the 
Apology  of  Plato,  30. 

Civilization,  obligations  to  Greek 
heroism  for  modern,  10. 

Claudius,  in  error  respecting  the 
Caudine  peace,  47. 

Clement,  Archbishop  of  Greeks 
at  Rhodes,  179.  Propositions 
to  the  Grand-master  by,  220, 
221. 

Clement  VII.,  Pope,  dispenses 
with  the  oath  of  Francis  I., 
235.  Enters  into  a  league,  235. 
Escapes  to  the  castle  of  St. 
Angelo,  243.  Proposition  to 
treat  with,  246.  Measures  for 
securing,  248,  254.  Situation 
of,  261.  Colonna  endeavors  to 
release,  261,  note,  264.  Vine- 
yard of,  burnt,  262.  Proposition 
by,  to  surrender,  263.  Sends 
legates  to  Francis  I.  and  Henry 
VIII.,  264  ;  letters  and  negotia- 
tors to  the  Emperor,  264.  Con- 
ditions offered  to,  264.  Grants 
by,  265.  Sells  cardinals'  hats, 
266.  Gives  hostages,  267.  Ne- 
gotiation for  relieving,  267. 
Enlarged,  268.  Escapes,  26S. 
Arrives  at  Orvieto,  268,  269. 
See  Colonna. 
||  Cleodseus,  13. 

Cleombrotus,  brother  of  Leonidas, 
13. 

Cleomenes,  brother  of  Leonidas, 
13.  Gorge  daughter  of,  27. 


388 


INDEX. 


Cleopatra,  fleet  of,  320. 

Clouds,  The,  Socrates  ridiculed  in 
30,  32. 

Cluys,  Peter  de,  176,  208. 

Cochlreus,  enemy  of  Luther,  153, 
154. 

Colonna  family,  at  Rome,  244. 

Colonna,  Fabricius,  commander  of 
Italians,  at  Rome,  248. 

Colonna,  Pompey,  Cardinal,  insti- 
gator of  the  sack  of  Rome,  261. 
Remarks  on,  261.  Good  con- 
duct of,  262.  Reception  of,  by 
the  Pope,  264.  Selects  hos- 
tages, 267.  Reconciled  to  the 
Pope,  267. 

Colossus  at  Rhodes,  173. 

Commandry,  169,  note. 

Compellatory,  274. 

Conrad,  Landamman  of  Uri,  95. 

Conrad  Griininger,  of  Glaris,  95. 

Constance,  Council  of,  99  ;  not 
acknowledged  as  oecumenic, 
100.  Huss  burnt  at,  100,  109, 
143.  Pope  elected  at,  244, 
note. 

Constantino  Paloeologus,  Emperor, 
112.  Prepares  for  the  defence 
of  Constantinople,  113.  On  the 
union  of  the  Latins  and  Greeks 
by,  115.  A  hero,  118.  Activ- 
ity of,  120.  Retaliation  by,  125. 
Sacrileges  by,  125.  Humbled, 
126.  Last  speech  of,  127.  In- 
fluence of  his  example,  128. 
Receives  the  sacrament,  128. 
Glorious  fall  of,  128.  Remon- 
strates with Justiniani,  130.  l,n-t 
words  and  fear  of,  131.  Killed, 
131.  Treatment  of  his  body  by 
Mohammed,  137.  See  Constan- 
tinople, Greeks,  Mohammed  II., 
and  Turks. 

Constantinople,  10.  Gibbon's  ac- 
count of  the  conquest  of,  1 1 1 
112.  Advantages  from  the  con- 
quest of,  112.  Christian  indif- 
ference as  to,  1 1 2,  1 23.  Besieg- 
ed, 113.  Ni«cWr,  of  people 
in,  114;  of  warriors  in,  114 
11$.  Qmin  trroes  the  harbor 


of,  115,  134.  Distraction  in 
before  the  conquest,  117.  Out- 
line and  situation  of,  118.  Sal- 
lies from,  118.  Progress  against 
the  walls  of,  119.  Mines  at- 
tempted at,  120.  Turret  ad- 
vanced against,  120,  121.  Ves- 
sels with  supplies  fight  their  way 
to,  121.  Double  attack  on,  124 
Attacked  from  a  floating  battery, 
125.  Massacres  at,  125.  Sacri- 
leges at,  125,  136.  Scene  in, 
before  the  final  assault,  127,128. 
Final  assault  on,  129.  Imme- 
diate cause  of  the  loss  of,  130. 
Entered  by  the  Turks,  131. 
Had  defied  the  power  of  the 
Chosroes,  the  Chagan,  and  the 
caliphs,  132.  Consternation  and 
disorder  in,  132,  136.  Treat- 
ment of  captives  there,  133.  Es- 
cape of  Christian  vessels  from, 
134.  Disposition  of  the  wealth 
of,  135.  Destruction  of  the  By- 
zantine libraries  there,  136.  En- 
tered by  the  Sultan  in  triumph, 
136.  Mohammed  II.  establishes 
his  residence  at,  138.  Renewal 
of  population  in,  139.  Elec- 
tion and  investiture  of  the  Pa 
triarch  of,  139.  Churches  of, 
shared  between  Turks  and  Chris- 
tians, 140.  Mohammed  II.  con- 
queror of,  160.  See  Constan- 
tine,  Greeks,  Mohammed  II., 
and  Turks. 

Consuls,  see  Roman. 

Conventctl .  meaning  of,  274. 

Cooke  of  Winchester,    apparitor, 
276. 

Coos,  Turks  repulsed  at,  180. 

Copper  coins,  anecdote  respecting, 
at  the  sack  of  Rome,  253. 

Cordus,  Curicius,  143. 

Corinthians,     four     hundred,     at 
Thermopylae,  12. 

Cornelian  family,  Nasica  on  the, 
70. 

Cornelius  Arvina,  Aulus,  57,  58. 
See  Nasica,  and  Scipio. 

Corunna,  317,  noU. 


INDEX. 


389 


Corvns,  Marcus  Valerius ,  held  the 
office  of  interrex,  52. 

Corydalus,  traitor  at  Thermopylae, 
17. 

Cosquin,  217,  223,  230. 

Cosso,  a  broad  street  at  Zaragoza, 
328.  Enemy  on  each  side  of, 
328.  Streets  running  into  the, 
331.  Reached  by  the  French, 
336.  Attempts  to  cross  the,  336. 
Passed,  337.  Six  mines  un- 
der the,  339. 

Courts,  remarks  on  Grecian,  32, 
33.  See  Henry  VIII. 

Cremera,  96,  note. 

Crete,  34. 

Criminals,  on  the  execution  of,  at 
Athens,  34. 

Criton,  conversation  of  Socrates 
with,  respecting  his  children, 
35  ;  his  burial,  35  ;  immortali- 
ty, 35.  Socrates'  injunctions 
on  his  sons  before,  36.  Con- 
versation with,  about  the  poi- 
son, 37.  Weeps,  38.  Last 
words  to,  by  Socrates,  39. 

Criton  and  Phredon  of  Plato,  30. 

Crotus,  Rector  of  the  University 
at  Erfurt,  reception  of  Luther 
by,  143. 

Crown  put  upon  Huss,  106,  107. 

Crusaders,  123. 

Crusades,  159. 

Culeo,  Quintus  Terentius,  ap- 
pointed to  hold  an  inquiry  re- 
specting Scipio,  66.  Feelings 
of,  towards  the  Cornelian  fami- 
ly, 66,  67  ;  towards  Publius 
Scipio,  66.  Lucius  Scipio  ar- 
raigned before,  67.  Termina- 
tion of  the  proceedings  by,  70. 
Judgement  pronounced  by,  73. 

Cumberland,  Earl  of,  321. 

Cunrat  von  Baumgarten,  Wolfen- 
schiessen's  attempt  at  an  in- 
trigue with  the  wife  of,  76. 
Kills  Wolfenschiessen  and  flees 
to  Uri,  78.  Goes  to  Unterwal- 
den,  83. 

Curtogli,  181. 

Cythera,  the  island,  Chilon  on,  25. 
33* 


D. 

Darius,  sons  of,  killed  at  Ther 
mopylaj,  21.     Relatives  of,  21 

Daughters  of  Jerusalem,  convent 
of,  336. 

David  of  Junkerberg,  94. 

Dazas,  Guyot,  177. 

Death,  of  Socrates,  by  Plato,  28  ; 
remarks  on  it,  29.  Socrates  on, 

33,  34.    Sentence  of,  passed  on 
Socrates,  33.     Explanation   of, 
by  Socrates,  34.     Time  of  exe- 
cuting sentence  of,  at  Athens, 

34.  Delay  in  executing  sentence 
of,  on  Socrates,  34.     Of  Huss, 
99,  109. 

Decius,  Publius,  56. 

DelfF,  meaning  of,  84,  note. 

Delivery  of  the  four  Swiss  Forest 
Districts,  74. 

Delos,  sacred  ship  annually  de- 
spatched to,  from  Athens,  34. 

Demaratus,  consultation  of,  by 
Xerxes,  before  the  battle  of 
Thermopylae,  15.  Advice  by, 
as  to  subduing  Sparta,  24  ;  not 
followed,  26.  Not  friendly  to 
the  Spartans,  26. 

Demophiius,  leader  of  the  Thes- 
pians at  Thermopylae,  20. 

Des  Reaux,  sent  to  Naples,.  215. 

Destruction  of  the  Invincible  Ar- 
mada, in  1588,  308. 

Dialects,  Ionic  and  Doric,  9. 

Dialogues  of  Plato,.  30.  Their 
purport,  35. 

Diamond  of  a  prelate  at  Rome, 
254. 

Dieneces,  speech  by,  at  Thermo- 
pylae,  22. 

Diet,  persons  composing  the,  141 
See  Charles  V.,  and  Luther. 

Diez,  Blaise,  traitor  at  Rhodes, 
209.  Testimony  of,  210,  211. 
Fate  of,  212. 

Dikes  in  Holland,  opened  upon 
the  Spaniards,  292. 

Diodrornas,  Demophiius  son  of,20. 

Dispensation  by  the  Pope,  271. 

Dithy  rambus,  conspicuous  at  Ther« 
mopylae,  22. 


390 


INDEX. 


Djem,  231,  note.     See  Zizim. 

Doric  dialect,  9. 

Dorieus,  brother  of  Leonidas,  13. 

Doryssus,  13. 

Douza,  John,  Latin  poet,  Govern- 
or of  Leyden,  289.  Acted  well, 
290.  Defeats  conspiracies,  295. 

Doyle,  General,  sends  a  convoy  to 
Zaragoza,  332. 

Draco,  John,  143. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  destroys  ves- 
sels at  Cadiz,  309.  Vice-Ad- 
miral, 314.  Yielding  of  Don 
Pedro  de  Valdez  to,  322. 

Drethelm,  of  Schaff  hausen,  96. 

Ducas,  on  the  Turkish  forces  be- 
fore Constantinople,  114.  Up- 
braids the  Greeks,  133. 

Ducat,  value  of  the,  135,  note. 

Duke  of  Austria,  see  Leopold. 

Duke  of  Bavaria,  101.   See  Lewis. 

Duke  of  Orleans,  279. 

Dutch,  see  Hollanders,  Leyden, 
and  Netherlands. 

Dyras,  the  river,  11. 

E. 

Ebernburg,  the  castle  of,  144. 

Ebro,  Zaragoza  on  the,  327,  328. 

Echecrates,  38)  39. 

Echestratus,  13. 

Eck,  John  von,  official  to  the  Elec- 
tor, accusation  of  Luther  by, 
146.  Luther's  vehement  antag- 
onist, 146,  note. 

Edward  III.,  320. 

EfloffofEms,  89,  90,  95. 

Einbeck  beer,  sent  to  Luther,  151. 

Eisenach,  Luther  sick  at,  143.  See 
Warlburg. 

Elector,  see  Frederic. 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  272.  Aids  the 
Low  Countries,  308,  309.  En- 
mity of  the  Pope  and  Philip  II. 
towards,  808.  Measures  for 
conquering,  308.  Allows  de- 
struction of  vessels  at  Cadiz, 
309.  Pr»'j>;ir;ilion§  of,  against  the 
Armada,  309,  313.  Her  speech, 
309,315.  Ihiiiry,  Lord  Houns- 
don,  general  for  the  person  of, 


313.  Economical  ;  recalls  four 
ships,  319.     Informed  as  to  the 
Armada,  320.    Sends  out  ships, 
320.     See  Armada. 

Elnbogen,  107. 

Emar,  George,  175. 

Embezzlement,  impeachment  of 
the  Scipios  for,  60. 

Emperor,  use  of  the  word  king 
and,  in  Germany,  75,  note. 

Ems,  Egloff  of,  Knight,  89,  90,  95 
Ulrich  of,  89,  90. 

Engelberg,  76. 

England,  Protestantism  in,  in  Eliz- 
abeth's time,  308.  Reflections 
on,  if  it  had  been  conquered, 
310.  Invasion  of,  by  the  Span- 
ish, threatened,  313.  Report 
of  the  conquest  of,  323.  See 
Armada,  Howard,  and  Eliza- 
beth. 

England,  Knights  of  the  Language 
of,  160,  165.  Commander  of 
the,  175.  Bastion  of,  at  Rhodes, 
175  ;  attacked,  188  ;  mines 
sprung  under  it,  194  ;  terrible 
fighting  there,  194,  195  ;  as- 
saults on,  by  Mustapha,195,197. 
Bravery  of  Knights  of,  198. 
Further  attacks  and  slaughter 
at  the  bastion  of,  201,  209,  216. 

English  fleet,  divided  into  two 
squadrons,  against  the  Armada, 

314.  Forces  of  the,  318.    Sum- 
mons to  the,  320.     Action  with 
the,    321.     See   Armada,    and 
Howard. 

Enieni,  11. 

Ennius,  Quintus,  statue  of,  68. 

Entlibuch  troops,  at  Sempach,  92. 

Ephialtes,  audience  of,  with  Xerx- 
es, 17.  Traitor  at  Thermopy- 
)»,  17.  Fate  of,  17.  Accom- 
panies Hydarnes  through  the 
path,  18,  19.  Advice  by,  to 
Xerxes,  20.  Greeks  retreat  be- 
fore, 21. 

Equinoxes,  see  Tides. 

Erfurt,  reception  of  Luther  at,  143. 

Eric  of  Brunswick,  Duke,  send* 
beer  to  Luther,  151. 


INDEX. 


391 


Erloch,  Siegfried  of,  95. 
Erraellino,    Cardinal,    238,    241. 

Hoisted    into  the   castle  of  St. 

Angelo,  244. 

Escheng,  Hermann  of,  94. 
Eschenloh,   Lord    Henry   of,   90, 

93. 

Etruscans,  40. 
Eumenes,  King,  73. 
Eurycrates,  13. 
Eurycratides,  13. 
Eurydemus,  Ephialtes  son  of,  17. 
Eurymachus,  killed  at  Plataeae,  24. 
Eurysthenes,  13. 
Eurytus,  valor  of,  at  Thermopy- 

Ise,  23. 
Exile,  Socrates  on,  33,  35. 

F. 

Fabii  family,  96. 

Fabius,  Quintus,  96. 

Faithful,  meaning  of,  251,  note. 

Fanaticism,  an  inventor  of  torture, 
255,  note. 

Fannius,  Caius,  on  the  conviction 
of  Scipio,  73. 

Farfan,  Chevalier,  despatched  to 
Candia  for  provisions,  215. 

Faussebrayes,  174. 

Feilitsch,  Philip  of,  145. 

Feracle,  fortress  of,  181. 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  271. 

Ferhat  Basha  reenforces  Soliman 
before  Rhodes,  228. 

Feudal  militia,  extinction  of,  233. 

Fine,  Socrates  on,  33. 

Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  coun- 
sel for  Catharine,  275.  Opposes 
Henry,  in  court,  280.  Defends 
the  Queen,  281. 

Flachsland,  95. 

Flanders,  Cardinal  Bentivoglio 
Papal  nuncio  at,  287.  See  Par- 
na. 

Flemings,  323. 

Florence,  Cardinal  of,  attempts  to 
silence  Huss,  103.  Greeks  go 
to,  after  the  conquest  of  Con- 
stantinople, 112. 

Flulen,  Tell  carried  towards,  85. 

Fontanus,   on    the    piety  of  the 


Grand-master  at  Rhodes,  179. 
On  d'Amaral,  212,  213. 

Fountaine,  De  la,  drives  miners, 
194. 

France,  Knights  of  the  Language 
of,  160.  Position  of  the,  at 
Rhodes,  175.  See  French. 

France,  succors  from,  not  received, 
214. 

Francis  I.,  of  France,  at  war  with 
Charles  V.,  at  the  time  of  the 
siege  of  Rhodes,  213.  Con- 
temporary monarchs  with,  233. 
Demands  Navarre  and  Naples, 

234.  Lays  siege  to  Pavia,  235. 
Captured,     235.     Words     by, 

235.  Signs  a  peace,  and  resigns 
Burgundy,  235.    Returns  home, 
235.     Does  not  fulfil  the  treaty, 
235.     The  Pope  sends  a  legate 
to,  264.     See  Charles  V. 

Francis  von  Sickingen,  144. 

Franenberg,  George,  German 
General,  remark  to  Luther  by, 
145.  Goes  to  rescue  Pavia, 
235.  Privations  of  his  troops, 
238  ;  change  in  their  appear- 
ance, 259  ;  their  conduct,  259. 

Franque  tower  at  Rhodes,  175. 

Fratres  arvales,  40. 

Frederic,  bastard 'of  Brandis,  93. 

Frederic, Duke,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
aided  the  election  of  Charles  V., 
142.  Insists  on  a  fair  hearing 
for  Luther,  142.  Exertions  of 
to  protect  Luther,  144,  note. 
Duke  John,  brother  to,  145. 
His  admiration  of  Luther,  151. 
Extracts  fro  m ,  1 5  2 .  See  C  harl  es 
V.,  and  Luther. 

Frederic  of  Thunau,  145,  150. 

Frederic  of  Zollern,  90. 

Frederic  II.  paid  Panin,  244,  note, 

French,  at  the  siege  of  Zaragoza, 
327,328.  Fury  of  the,  329.  Re- 
treat, 331.  Appear  again  before 
Zaragoza,  333.  Slow  progress 
of  the ,  335.  Arrive  at  the  Cos- 
so,  336.  Disheartened  and 
murmur,  337.  See  Lasnea,  and 
Zaragoza. 


392 


INDEX. 


Fresnoi,  Chevalier  du,  killed,  205. 
Freundsberg,  see  Franenberg. 
Friesshard,  killed,  93. 
Frobisher,  314. 
Froissart,  320,  note. 
Frundsberg,  see  Franenberg. 
Fnller,  citation  from,  110. 
Furfan,  Marin,  177. 
Furst,     Walter,      consulted      by 

Stauffach,     81.      Informed     of 

Gessler's  fate,  86. 
Furst,    Stauffach,    and    Melchtal, 

league   by,  in  Switzerland,  82. 

Results  of  the  league,  88. 
Furstenberg,  Count  John  of,  90. 

G. 

Gabours,  126. 

Galata,  private  treaty  with  the 
Genoese  colony  of,  112.  Sub- 
urb of,  enclosed,  113.  Vessels 
transported,  near,  124.  Evacua- 
tion of,  134.  Fortifications  of, 
destroyed,  139. 

Galleasses,  317,  318. 

Galleons,  317. 

Gardiner,  Stephen,  Bishop  of 
Winchester,  275,  note. 

Gauls,  on  ransoming  Rome  from 
the,  46.  On  the  defence  of 
Rome  against  the,  47.  Rome 
subdued  by,  50. 

Gazan,  General,  338. 

Gennadius,  the  monk,  advice  by, 
on  a  union  of  the  Greeks  and 
Latins,  116.  The  crosier  de- 
livered to,  140. 

Genoese  vessels,  arrive  with  sup- 
plies at  Constantinople,  121. 
Escape,  134. 

Genseric,  the  Vandal,  246. 

Gentili,  Andelot,  175. 

Gentleman  usher,  270. 

George,  Duke  of  Saxony,  153, 
154. 

(ier man  Empire,  see  Luther. 

(icruians,  conduct  of,  at  the  sack 
of  Rome,  237.  Addressed  by 
Charles  of  Bourbon,  237.  Cut 
down  the  populace,  246.  En- 
ter the  city,  248.  Extortions  of 


riches  by,  253.  Less  cruel  than 
Spaniards,  257.  Obduracy  of 
the,  264.  Persons  delivered  as 
hostages  to  the,  by  the  Pope, 
265.  Inclined  to  peace,  267. 
At  the  siege  of  Ostend,  302. 

Germany,  Knights  of  the  Language 
of,  160.  Commander  of  the, 
at  Rhodes,  175.  Amaral  to 
sustain,  176.  Post  of,  attacked, 
188.  Valdner,  Commander  of 
Knights  of,  198. 

Gerrard,  Thomas,  321. 

Gersau,  troops  from,  at  Sempach, 
92.  Bravery  of  a  man  of,  95. 

Gessler,  the  bailiff,  cruel  treat- 
ment by,  76,  79.  Causes  a 
castle  to  be  built  at  Uri,  79  ; 
name  given  to  it  by,  79.  Re- 
quires reverence  to  a  hat  on  a 
pole,  80,  83.  Castle  of,  at 
Kussnacht,  80.  Conversation 
of,  wiJh  Wernherr  of  Stauffach, 
80.  His  order  not  obeyed  by 
Tell,  83.  Arraigns  Tell,  83,84. 
Killed  by  Tell,  86.  Castle  of, 
destroyed,  88.  See  Tell. 

Gesslers,  at  the  battle  of  Sempach, 
89. 

Gessner,  Burkard,  95. 

Ghibelline  party,  243,  244 

Giaours,  126,  note. 

Gibbon,  Edward,  birth  and  death 
of,  111.  lib  Decline  and  final 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  111. 
His  account  of  the  Conquest  of 
Constantinople,  112. 

Glapius,  Luther  urged  to  see,  144. 

Claris,  or  Glarus,  76,  97.  Troops 
of,  at  Sempach,  92.  Conriw? 
Gruninger  of,  95. 

Gold  rings,  badges  of  distinction, 
51,  note. 

Gonzagua,  Ferdinand,  248. 

Gdnzagua,  Lewis  de, 247, 248, 268. 

Good  Christian,  meaning  of,  240, 
note. 

Gorge,  Arthur,  321. 

Gorgo,  wife  of  Lconidas,  discov- 
ery by,  respecting  waxen  tab 
lets,  27. 


INDEX. 


393 


Gouda,  295. 

Gracchus,  Tiberius  Sempronius, 
a  tribune,  enmity  of  Scipio  and, 

63.  His    remarks    on   Scipio, 
63 ;    befriends   and   commends 
him,  64.     Effect  of  his  speech, 

64.  Thanks  to,  by  the  Roman 
senate,  64.      Remarks   on    the 
speech  of,  68.   /Facts  mention- 
ed   by,   respecting   Scipio,    69. 
Marriage  of  Scipio 's   daughter 
to,  69.     On  the  judgement  on 
Scipio,  73. 

Grand  Crosses,  165. 

Gratz  in  Styria,  107. 

Gravesend,  fortified,  314. 

Grecian,  see  Thermopylae. 

Greece,  first  and  second  attempts 
to  subdue,  10. 

Greek  woman,  bravery  of  a,  202. 

Greeks,  condition  of  the,  before 
the  conquest  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Turks,  111.  Emigrate 
and  give  an  impulse  to  letters, 
after  the  conquest,  112.  Union 
of  Latins  and,  115.  Pathetic 
scene  of  the,  before  the  last  as- 
sault on  them,  128.  Valor  of, 
129.  Overwhelmed,  131.  Flee, 
131.  Treatment  of  the,  133, 
138.  Infringements  on  the  priv- 
ileges of,  by  Selim,  140.  Treat- 
ment of,  at  Rhodes,  by  Turks 
and  Latins,  179.  Protestations 
of,  201.  Private  meetings  of  the, 
220.  Representations  by,  to 
the  Metropolitan,  220.  See  Con- 
stantine,  Constantinople,  Mo- 
hammed II.,  and  Turks. 

Gregory,  Patriarch,  116. 

Griffith,  Master,  General  Receiver 
of  Catharine,  278. 

Grimereaux,  Chevalier  de,  199. 

Grimm,  Hermann  of  Grunenberg, 
89. 

Grolee,  Anthony  de,  standard  of 
the  Order  of  Knights  given  to, 
177.  Deputy  to  Soliman  II., 
223.  Detained,  224.  Conducts 
deputies  to  camp,  226. 

Groyne,  317,  319. 


Grunenberg,  Hermann  Grimm  of, 

89. 

Griininger,  Conrad,  of  Glaris,  95 
Guise,  Duke  of,  313.  Preparations 

of  the,   early,    317.     To    have 

landed  in  the  West  of  England, 

319. 
Gundoldingen,  Petermanu  of,  92, 

95. 
Gunpowder,  want  of,  at  Rhodes, 

191.     Manufacture   of,    at    the 

siege  of  Zaragoza,  332. 
Gutt,  Nicholas,  96. 

H. 

Haerlem,  291. 

Hair,  adorned  by  Greeks  before  a 

dangerous  enterprise,  15.      Sec 

Horse-hair. 
Halicarnassus,  Herodotus  born  at, 

9. 
Hallwyl,   Thuring   and  John    of, 

89.     Killed,  94. 
Hannibal,  exiled  from   Carthage, 

60,  66.     Scipio's  victory  over, 

62,  64.    With  Antiochus,  at  his 

defeat,  71. 
Hanns,    of  Oberkirch,    94.       Of 

Vauxmarcus,  95.    OfRandegh, 

96.     Of  Tulach,  96. 
Hans,  of  Bonstetten,  91. 
Hapsburg,  Rudolph   of,  Emperor 

of  Germany,  74.  Counts  of,  94. 

See  Austria. 

Harrnatidas,  son  of,  killed  at  Ther- 
mopylae, 22. 

Harrass,  Rudolph  the,  94. 
Hasenburg,  John,  Lord  of,  91,  95. 
Hasenbiihel,  battle  at,  90. 
Hassan,  the  Janizary,  131. 
Hatstatt,  95. 
Hawkins,  Sir  John,  314. 
Hegel,  on  Socrates,  30. 
Heliaea,  character  of  the  court  of, 

32.  Socrates  tried  by  the,  32  ; 
passes  sentence  of  death  on  him, 

33.  Address  to  the,  by  Socra- 
tes, 33. 

Helvetia,  74.     See  Switzerland. 
Hemlock,  see  Poison. 
Hemmann  of  Rheinach,  96. 


394 


INDEX. 


Hendorfg,  three,  killed,  95. 
Henneberg,  see  William. 
Henricus  urges  the  execution  of 

John  Huss,  101. 

Henry  VIII.  of  England,  contem- 
porary with  Charles  V.  and 
Francis  I.,  233.  League  under 
the  protection  of,  235.  To  have 
an  estate  in  Naples,  235.  Cav- 
endish's account  of,  and  of 
Catharine  of  Aragon,  his  Queen, 
before  the  legatine  court,  con- 
sisting of  Cardinals  Wolsey  and 
Campeggio,  in  1527,  270,  274. 
Facts  respecting,  271.  Succeeds 
his  father,  271.  Marriage  of, 
with  Catharine,  271.  Dispen- 
sation to,  by  the  Pope,  271.  A 
tyrant,  271.  Gross  ideas  of, 
272.  Compared  with  Elizabeth, 
272.  Lives  eighteen  years  with 
Catharine,  272.  Pretends  com- 
punction for  his  marriage,  272, 
278,  279  ;  importunes  the  Pope 
to  annul  it,  273  ;  measures  for 
trying  its  validity,  273.  Lodged 
at  Bridewell,  274.  Summon- 
ed to  the  legatine  court,  274. 
Counsel  for,  275.  Called  in 
court,  275.  Catharine's  appeal 
to,  in  court,  276.  Remarks  by, 
on  the  Queen,  278,  279.  Ex- 
cuses the  Lord  Cardinal,  278. 
Speech  by,  278,  279.  Sends 
for  Wolsey,  282.  Lord  of  Wilt- 
shire sent  by,  282.  Sends  car- 
dinals to  persuade  the  Queen, 
282.  Judgement  respecting,  not 
rendered,  285.  See  Wolsey. 

Henry  of  Eschenloh,  Lord,  90,  93. 

Henry,  Lord  Hounsdon,  General 
for  Elizabeth's  person,  313. 

Henry  von  Melchtal,  see  Melchtal. 

Henry  of  Moos,  92. 

Heralds,  56,  57,  58.     See  Arvina. 

Hercules,  the  Dyras  and,  12.  An- 
cestor of  Leonidas,  13,  14. 

Herennius,  see  Pontius. 

Heresy,  Luther  excommunicated 
for,  142. 

Heretics,  violation  of  promises  to, 


100.    Mass  not  said  before,  101. 

Hermann  of  Escheng,  94. 

Herodotus,  notice  of,  and  of  Jiia 
writings,  9.  Influence  of,  on 
Thucydides,  9.  His  account  of 
the  battle  of  Thermopylae,  11. 

Hessen,  Cobanns,  143. 

Hieronymus,  M.,  on  Huss,  107, 
110. 

Historical  criticism  began  with 
Thucydides,  10. 

Hobby,  Sir  Edward,  despatched 
by  the  Admiral  to  Elizabeth, 320 

Hochberg,  see  Otto. 

Hohengollern,  banner  of,  95. 

Hohenrechberg,  Albert  of,  95. 

Holiness,  Pope  styled,  246,  note. 

Holland,  see  Netherlands. 

Hollanders  oppose  the  Spanish 
Armada,  316. 

Holy  Land,  pilgrimages  to  the,  158 

Holy  League,  235.     -See  Leagues 

Holy  Virgin,  176. 

Hooks,  294,  note. 

Horse-hair,  torture  by,  255,  note. 

Horseman  sent  to  Thermopyla?  to 
reconnoiter,  14. 

Horsetails,  meaning  of,  129,  note 

Hospital  for  pious  pilgrims,  159. 

Hospitallers,  Brothers  of  St.  John, 
Knights  Hospitallers  of  St.  John 
of  Jerusalem,  origin  of  the  Or- 
der, 159.  Vows  taken  by,  159. 
Divided  into  eight  Languages, 
160.  Opposition  of  the  Order  to 
the  Turks,  160.  In  Cyprus,  160. 
Conquer  Rhodes,  160.  Called 
Knights  of  Rhodes,  160.  Old 
treaty  with  the,  226.  Zizim 
surrenders  himself  to  the,  231, 
note.  See  Knights. 

Hostages,  given  by  the  Romans, 
at  Caudium,  48  ;  to  Porsena, 
68.  Given  at  the  sack  of  Rome, 
266  ;  treatment  of  the,  265  ; 
escape,  266. 

Hostilius,  see  Cato. 

Hounndon,  tee  Henry. 

Hours,  on  numbering,  2^1,  note. 

House  of  Austria,  or  Hapsburg, 
tee  Austria,  and  Hapaburg. 


INDEX. 


395 


Howard,  Charles,  Lord  High  Ad- 
miral of  England,  314.  Sum- 
mons the  English  fleet,  upon  the 
approach  of  Spaniards,  320. 
Notifies  Elizabeth,  320.  Asks 
aid,  320.  Attacks  the  Armada, 
321.  Within  the  battle  during 
the  night,  322.  Humane  act  of, 
323.  Ships  under  the  com- 
mand of,  325.  See  Armada. 

Howes,Edmund, publishes  Stowe's 
Chronicle,  311. 

Hugh,  Don,  267. 

Hund,  Burkhard,  156. 

Hungary,  Mohammed  II.,  aided  by 
the  ambassador  of,  123.  Pio- 
neers from,  aid  the  Turks 
against  Rhodes,  181. 

Huss,  John,  Theobald's  account 
of  the  Death  of,  99.  Birth, 
studies,  and  preaching  of,  99. 
Safeconduct  to  the  council  at 
Constance  promised  to,  100. 
Imprisoned,  100.  Examinations 
and  execution  of,  100,  109. 
Reminds  Sigismundof  his  prom- 
ise, 100,  104.  Place  of  the  exe- 
cution of,  100,109.  Final  exam- 
ination of,100.  Taken  froYn  pris- 
on to  the  cathedral,  100.  Mass 
not  said  before,  100.  Clad  in 
mass  vestments,  101,  105.  Exe- 
cution of,  urged  in  a  sermon  and 
a  speech,  101.  Charges  against, 
read, 102.  Attempts  replies, 102. 
Silenced,  102.  Sentence  pas- 
sed upon,  104.  Burning  of  his 
books,  104,107.  Degraded, 105. 
Addresses  the  people,  105,  107, 

108.  Stripped,    105.      Cross 
made   on  his  head,  106.     The 
crown  put  upon,  106, 107.    Giv- 
en over  to   Duke  Lewis,  106. 
Effect  of  his  sentence  on  Caspar 
Schlick,  106.     Conducted  to  the 
stake,  107.     Remarks  on,  107. 
Tied  to  the  stake,  108.      Re- 
fuses to  renounce  errors,  108. 
Burnt,  109.     Treatment  of  his 
body,  109.     Clothing  of,  burnt, 

109.  Ashes  of,  thrown  into  the 


Rhine,  109.  Luther  reminded 
of  the  fate  of,  142. 

Hussey,  Nicholas,  175. 

Hussites,  the  War  of  the,  99. 

Hutten,  Ulrich  of,  encourages  Lu- 
ther, 146. 

Hydarnes,  attacks  the  Greeks,  at 
Thermopylffi,  and  is  repulsed, 
16.  Detached  to  the  path  guard- 
ed by  the  Phoceans,  17. 

Hyllus,  13. 

Hyperanthes,  son  of  Darius,  killed 
at  Thermopylae,  21. 

Hystaspes,  21. 

I. 

Immortality,  belief  of  Socrates  in, 
30.  Doctrine  of,  argued  by  Soc- 
rates, 35,  36. 

Impeachment  of  the  Scipios,  €0. 

Imperialists  prevail  at  Rome,  241. 
See  Germans,  and  Spaniards. 

Imprisonment,  Socrates  on,  33. 

Im-Thurrn,  the  nobles,  96. 

Infanta,  visit  to  Ostend  by  the,  af- 
ter its  surrender,  306,  307. 
Commends  Spinola,  307. 

Infantry,  on  attacks  by,  90. 

Inquisition,  torture  by  the,  255, 
note. 

Ionic  dialect,  9. 

Isell,  dikes  of  the,  opened,  292. 

Isidore,  Cardinal,  115.  Escape 
of,  134. 

Italian  nations,  three  early,  40. 

Italian  soldiers,  enter  Rome,  un- 
der Colonna  and  Gonzagua,248. 
At  the  siege  of  Ostend,  302. 

Italy,  three  prominent  early  na- 
tions in,  40.  Divided  into  small 
states,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
233. 

Italy,  Knights  of  the  Language  of, 
160.  Desertion  among  the,  169. 
Retire  to  Candia,  170.  Pre- 
vailed on  to  return  to  Rhodes, 
171.  Commander  of,  175.  At- 
tacks on  the  bastion  of,  188, 190, 
196,  209,  216.  Bravery  of  the 
Knights  of,  196.  Bastion  of, 
ruined,  215. 


396 


INDEX 


J. 

James  I.,  grant  to  Stowe  by,  312. 

Janiculum,  at  Rome,  247. 

Janizaries,  113.  Paternity  of, 
126.  Come  fresh  into  action, 
129.  Bravery  and  death  of, 
131.  Testimony  of  three,  140. 
Complain  and  mutiny  before 
Rhodes,  183,  185.  Disheart- 
ened and  murmur,  197.  Yield, 
204.  Violate  the  treaty  at 
Rhodes,  230.  See  Aga. 

Jaxi,  mission  of,  to  Lycia,  177. 
Treachery  towards,  178.  Tor- 
ture and  death  of,  178. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  107,  110. 

Jerusalem,  pilgrimages  to,  158. 

Jewish  physician,  treachery  of  a,  at 
Rhodes,  187, 199.  Condemna- 
tion of,  199. 

Joachim,  Elector  of  Brandenburg, 
153,  154. 

Joachim  de  St.  Aubin,  175. 

Job,  the  Arabian  martyr,  139. 

John  XXIII.,  Pope,  promise  to 
Huss  by,  100. 

John  of  Austria,  161. 

John  von  Eck,  see  Eck. 

John  of  Hallwyl,  89.  Killed, 
94. 

John  of  Hasenburg,  91,  95. 

John  von  Miiller,  see  Miiller. 

John  of  Oberkirch,  90. 

John  of  Ochsenstein,  90,  95. 

John  Palreologus,  115. 

John,  Duke,  brother  to  the  Elector 
of  Saxony,  at  Weimar,  supplies 
Luther  with  travelling  money, 
143,  145,  152. 

Jonas,  Tartus,  145. 

Julian  de  Medicis,  213. 

Julius  II.,  Pope,  dispensation 
granted  to  Henry  VIII.  by,  271. 

Jnnkerberg,  David  of,  94. 

Juno,  acknowledgements  to,  by 
Scipio,  62. 

Jupiter,  acknowledgements  to,  by 
Sripio,  62. 

JoBtiniani,  John,  succors  Constnn- 
tine,  115.  Donative  to,  115. 
Activity  of,  120.  Criminates 


the  great  Duke,  126.     Wound* 
ed,  130.     Retirement  of,  130. 

K. 

King,  use  of  the  word  in  Germany, 
75,  note. 

Knights  of  Rhodes,  160.  Repulse 
Mohammed  II.,  161.  Intercept 
Turkish  convoys,  161.  Valor 
of,  161,  182,  183.  Malta  given 
to  the,  162.  Defend  Malta,  162. 
Termination  of  the  Order  of, 
162.  Order  of,  revived,  162. 
Philip  de  Villiers  de  1'Isle  Adam, 
Grand-master  of  the  Order 
164.  Six  hundred,  for  the  de- 
fence of  Rhodes,  172.  Soliman 
on  the,  185,  186.  Business  of, 
during  a  sally,  191.  Encourag 
ed  by  the  Grand-master,  200 
Bravery  of,  at  the  English  bas 
tion,  202.  Eulogiums  on  the, 
208.  Leave  Rhodes,  232.  See 
Adam,  and  Hospitallers. 

Kunigsfelden,  bodies  carried  to, 
after  the  battle  at  Sempach,  97. 

Kraft  of  Lichtenstein,  90. 

Kussnacht,  castle  of  Gessler  at, 
80/85.  Lord  of,  92. 

L. 

Lacedaemon,  left  to  Nabis,  72.  See 
Sparta.  \ 

Lacedaemonians,  14.  Their  re- 
ception of  Xerxes'  horseman, 
at  Thermopylae,  14.  See  Leo- 
nidas,  Spartans,  and  Xerxes. 

Lacoste,  General,  convent  of  the 
Capuchins,  at  Zaragoza,  fortifi- 
ed by,  336. 

Lances,  at  Sempach,  90.  Shafts 
of,  shivered,  92. 

Landenberg,  Beringer  von,  the 
bailiff,  cruel  treatment  by,  76  ; 
of  the  Melchtals,  78.  Exactions 
by,  on  new-year's  days,  87. 
Flight  of,  88. 

Landinns,  Bishop,  sermon  by, 
on  heresy  and  against  HUBS, 
101. 

Landvogts,  75.     See  Bailiffs. 


INDEX. 


397 


Lango,  surrender  of,  demanded, 
223. 

Lasnes,  French  Marshal,  assumes 
the  command  at  the  siege  of 
Zaragoza,  333.  Progresses  grad- 
ually, 334.  Encourages  his  ex- 
hausted troops,  337.  Assaults 
the  convent  of  St.  Lazar,  338. 
Rejects  proposals,  338.  Depu- 
tation to,  340.  See  French,  and 
Zaragoza. 

Lati  clavi,  51,  note. 

Latins,  40.  League  by  the,  40. 
Hated  by  Greeks,  118.  Pro- 
testations of,  201.  See  Greeks. 

Laurentia,Acca,agricultural  priest- 
hood established,  in  honor  of, 
40,  note. 

Lautrec,  264,  note.      See  Lutrec. 

Laws,  Socrates'  regard  for,  29, 
31,  35. 

Leagues,  among  early  Italian  na- 
tions, 40.  In  Switzerland,  82. 
Between  Clement  VII.,  Francis 
I.,  the  republic  of  Venice,  and 
the  Duke  of  Milan,  against 
Charles  V.,  and  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Henry  VIII.,  235  ; 
Lutrec  commander  of  the  army 
245,  note  ;  fear  of  the  approach- 
ing army,  254. 

Leicester,  see  Robert. 

Lemnos,  conditionally  promised  to 
Justiniani,  115. 

Lentulus,  Lucius,  speech  of,  at  the 
Caudine  Forks,  46. 

Lenzburgers,  killed,  96. 

Leo  X.,  Pope,  secret  agreement 
of  Charles  V.  with,  234. 

Leobotes,  13. 

Leon,  King  of  Sparta,  13. 

Leonard  of  Chios,  114. 

Leonidas,  10.  Influence  of  his 
example,  11.  Commander-in- 
chief  against  the  Medes  and 
Persians,  13.  Ancestors  of,  13, 
14.  His  accession  to  the  throne 
of  Sparta,  13.  Troops  under, 
13, 14.  Urged  on,  by  his  coun- 
trymen, 14.  Prevails  on  troops 
to  remain  at  Thermopylae,  14. 
34 


Resolution  of,  not  to  retreat,  19. 
Annunciation  of  the  oracle,  re- 
specting, 19.  Troops  remaining 
with,  19,  20.  Advances  against 
the  enemy,  20.  Desperate  valor 
of,  and  of  his  troops,  21.  Kill- 
ed, 21.  Body  of,  rescued  by  the 
Spartans,  21.  Bones  of,  carried 
to  Sparta,  21,  note.  Annual  fu- 
neral orations  and  games  in  com- 
memoration of,  21,  note.  Treat- 
ment of  the  body  of,  by  Xerxes, 
26.  Gorgo,  wife  of,  27. 

Leontiades,  Theban  troops  con- 
ducted by,  to  Thermopylae,  13. 
Joins  Xerxes,  24.  Son  of,  kill- 
ed at  Plataeae,  24. 

Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria,  marches 
to  Sempach,  89.  Illustrious  per- 
sons and  nobles  under  89.  Ap- 
pearance of,  90.  Preparations 
of,  for  battle,  90.  Warnings  to, 
91.  Ranks  of,  pressed,  93.  Re- 
ceives a  banner,  93.  Seeks 
death,  94.  Struck  down,  94. 
Malterer  protects  the  body  of, 
94.  Burial  place  of,  97.  See 
Swiss. 

Leoprepis,  Simonides  son  of,  23. 

Lepanto,  battle  of,  161,  and  161, 
note. 

Lewis,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  101. 
Huss  delivered  to,  106.  Ex- 
horts Huss  to  renounce  errors, 
108  ;  orders  his  clothes  to  be 
burnt,  109. 

Lewis,  Elector  of  the  Palatinate  at 
Worms,  145.  Opposes  viola- 
tion of  safeconduct  to  Luther> 
153. 

Leyden,  Siege  of,  by  Bentivoglio, 
287.  Description  of,  288.  Suc- 
cor cut  off  from,  289.  Douza 
governor  of,  289.  Measures  for 
supplying,  with  provisions,  290. 
Relieved,  294.  Particulars  of 
the  sufferings  in,  295.  See  Ley- 
denists. 

Leydenists,  prepare  for  defence, 
289.  Reply  to  summons  to 
surrender,  289,  note.  Suffer  for 
G.  E. 


398 


INDEX. 


provisions,  290,  293,  294.  See 
Leyden. 

Lichtenstein,  Kraft  of,  90.  Lords 
of,  94. 

Lindo,  caatle  of,  181. 

Lion  of  stone,  at  Thermopylae,  21. 

Lioncel,  Berenger  de,  175. 

Liternum,  Scipio's  retirement  to, 
and  burial  at,  62,  64,  68. 

Livius,  Lucius,  tribune,  53. 

Livy,  his  account  of  the  surrender 
of  the  Roman  army,  near  Cau- 
diuin,  40.  Facts  respecting,  60. 
His  account  of  the  Impeachment 
of  the  Scipios,  60. 

Lo,  Werner  of,  killed,  96. 

Locri,  tumult  raised  at,  by  Ple- 
minius,  61. 

Locrians,  see  Opuntian. 

Lombardy,  troops  sent  to,  by  Pope 
Adrian  VI.,  214. 

London,  petition  to  the  Mayor  and 
Aldermen  of,  by  Stovve,  311. 
Uncharitable,  31 2.  Preparations 
of,  against  the  Spanish  Armada, 
313. 

Louis  XL,  possession  of  Burgundy 
by,  234. 

Louis  XVI.,  fate  of,  112. 

Louis  XVIII.  replies  to  a  proposi- 
tion by  Napoleon,  235. 

Lowers,  castle  of,  destroyed,  88. 

Luceria,  Samnites  reported  to  be 
besieging,  42.  Romans  go  to 
the  relief  of,  42. 

Lucerne,  of  Rotenburg,  bailiffs  of, 
75.  Conduct  of  inhabitants 
of,  76.  Flight  to,  88.  Sempach 
near,  89.  Troops  from,  at  Sem- 
pach, 92.  Troops  commanded 
by  the  avoyer  of,  92.  Bravery 
of  the  troops  of,  92.  Bodies  bur- 
ied at,  98. 

Luther,  Martin, The  Appearance  of, 
before  the  Diet  of  the  German 
[>ire,  at  Worms,  in  the  year 
1521,141.  Remarks  on,  and  on 
hia  Declaration,  141.  Writings 
of,  prohibited,  and  read,  14 1,1 53. 
Ezcoiniiiunii  ated,141,142.  Na- 
tional feeling  respecting  his  writ- 


ings,142.  SafeconducttoWormi 
granted  to,  142, 144,no/e.  Sub- 
ject of  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
142.  Included  in  the  bull  of  the 
Pope,  142.  Replies  to  the  bull, 
142.  Heroism  of,  142,  145, 
157,  note.  Reminded  of  thfr 
fate  of  Huss,  142,  143.  Bold 
stand  of,  against  the  Pope  and 
Church,  142, 146.  Carriage  and 
travelling  money  given  to,  143. 
Reception  of,  at  Erfurt,  143. 
Sick,  143,  144.  Curiosity  to 
see,  on  his  journey,  143.  Re- 
plies to  discouragements,  143. 
Writes  to  Spalatine,  144.  In- 
trigues against,  144,  and  144, 
note.  Urged  to  go  to  the  castlo 
of  Ebernburg,  144.  Accompa- 
nied by  Sturm,  as  herald,  144, 
note.  His  reply  to  Spalatine, 
about  devils  and  tiles,  145. 
Arrival,  reception,  and  lodg- 
ings of,  at  Worms,  145.  Sum- 
moned to  the  council,  145. 
Thronged,  145,  146.  Encour- 
agements to,  by  Frundsberg, 

145  ;     by    Ulrich   of   Hutten, 

146  ;    by  the   multitude,    146. 
To  say  nothing,  except  when 
called  upon,  146.     Charge   a- 
gainst,  respecting   books,   and 
his  replies,   146.      Schurf  ad- 
vocate  and   protector  of,  147. 
Spalatine  cited  on,  at  Worms, 
151.     Visitors  of,  151.     Meas- 
ures    to     procure     recantation 
from,    153,    154  ;     to    deprive 
of  safeconduct,   153.     Private 

1  conversations  with,  154.  Or- 
ders to,  to  return  home,  155. 
Compl.-iins  that  his  doctrine  had 
not  been  inquired  into,  155. 
Reception  of,  at  Hirschfeld, 
156.  Seized  and  carried  to  the 
castle  of  Wartburg,  156  ;  hie 
residence  there,  157,  note.  See 
Charles  V.,  Frederic,  and  Spal- 
atine. 

Lutrec,  Commander  of  the  army 
of  the  league,  245,  note,  264, 


INDEX. 


399 


note.  Advantages  gained  by, 
267,  269. 

Lycia,  signal  fires  in,  177. 

Lycon  hates  and  persecutes  Soc- 
rates, 31. 

Lygdamis  the  usurper,  9. 

Lysias,  Socrates  declines  the  aid 
of,  32. 

M. 

Macedonia,  left  to  Philip,  72. 

Mackintosh,  Sir  James,  on  a 
speech  by  Elizabeth,  309,  315. 

Mselius,  Q,uintus,  tribune,  53. 

Malicome,  Chevalier  Binde,  de- 
fends the  bastion  of  England, 
216. 

Malta,  Knights  of,  see  Hospital- 
lers. 

Malterer,  Martin, and  Leopold, 94. 

Manlius,  Cneius,  aimed  at,  66. 
Charges  against,  71. 

Manosque,  172,  180,  208,  212. 

Mansfield,  Lord,  on  Socrates,  28. 

Mantineans,  five  hundred,  at 
Thermopylae,  12. 

Mantua,  Marchioness  of,  treat- 
ment of  the,  at  Rome,  257. 

Marathon,  Persians  defeated  at, 
10. 

Marheinecke's  account  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  Luther  before  the 
Diet  at  Worms,  141. 

Maron,  distinguished  at  Thermop- 
ylae, 22.  Inscription  to,  22. 

Marquet,  Raimond,  177.  Deputy 
to  Soliman  II.,  225. 

Martin  V.,  Pope,  of  the  Colonna 
family,  244,  note. 

Martinengo,  Gabriel,  escape  of, 
from  Candia  to  Rhodes,  167. 
Effects  of,  confiscated,  168. 
Honored,  168.  Voted  into  the 
Order  of  Knights,  169.  Pen- 
sioned, 169.  Power  given  to, 
169.  Ad  vantages  received  from, 
169.  Carries  on  the  works,  172. 
Entrenchments  made  by,  192, 
217.  Discovers  a  mine,  194. 
Wounded  in  the  eye,  207. 
Rushes  on  the  Turks,  217 


Counsel  of,  to  the  Grand-mas- 
ter, 221.  Meets  Turks  with  a 
letter,  223. 

Mary,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII., 
279. 

Mass,  not  said  before  Huss,  101. 

Maurice,  Coun-t,  successful  at 
Sluys,  305,  306.  Did  not  re- 
lieve Ostend,  306. 

Mauselle,  Henri  de,  177.  Killed, 
195. 

Maximus,  Quintus  Fabius,  office 
of  interrex  held  by,  52. 

Mazagran,  attack  on  French  at, 
327,  note. 

Medal,  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Armada,  310. 

Medes  and  Persians,  battle  be- 
tween the  Greeks  and  the,  at 
Thermopylffi,  16.  See  The- 
bans. 

Medicis,  Julian  de,  213. 

Medina,  see  Perez. 

Megistias,  predicts  the  destruction 
of  Greeks  at  Thermopylae,  19, 
20.  Facts  respecting,  20.  In- 
scription on  the  tomb  of,  22. 

Melampus,  20. 

Melampygus,  the  rock,  18. 

Melas,  the  river,  12. 

Melchtal,  Arnold  von,  78.  Strikes 
a  servant  and  flees  to  Uri,  78, 
82.  Enters  into  a  league,  82. 
Goes  to  Unterwalden,  83.  See 
Furst. 

Melchtal,  Henry  von,  cattle  taken 
from,  by  a  landvogt,  78.  Cruel 
treatment  of,  79. 

Melians,  11.  Conduct  Thessa- 
lians  against  Phoceans,  at  the 
path  at  Thermopylae,  18. 

Melis,  11.  Situation  of,  11.  Xerx- 
es encamps  at,  12.  Trachinia 
part  of,  17,  note. 

Melitus,  a  poet,  originates  charges 
against  Socrates,  31.  Joined 
by  Lycon  and  Anytus,  31. 

Mellingen,  96. 

Mendoza,  Don  Barnardino  de,  on 
the  conquest  of  England,  323, 
Dismay  of,  324. 


400 


INDEX. 


Mennetou,  mission  of,  177,  178. 

Mesembria,  surrender  of,  113. 

Mesnil,  Chevalier  de,   175.     Re- 
pels Turks,  199. 

Meuse,  dikes  of  the,  opened,  292. 

Milan,  demanded  and  obtained  by 
Charles  V.,  234,  235. 

Milanese,  appealed  to,  by  Charles 
of  Bourbon,  237. 

Miltiades,  at  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon, 10. 

Mina,  value  of  the,  33. 

Minerva,  acknowledgements  to, by 
Scipio,  62. 

Minerva,  Cardinal  della,  treatment 
of,  256. 

Minos,  Attica  delivered  from,  34. 

Mladonowiz,  Petras  de,  facts  from, 
respecting  Huss,  99. 

Morsburg,  Lords  of  Lichtenstein, 
of,  killed,  94. 

Mohammed  II.,  Constantinople 
threatened  by,  112.  Besieges 
Constantinople,  113.  The  great 
cannon  of,  119.  His  interest  in 
the  action  between  the  Turkish 
and  Christian  fleet,  122.  Pun- 
ishes the  captain  bashaw,  123. 
Aided  by  the  ambassador  of 
Hungary,  123.  Meditates  re- 
treat, 123.  Influenced  by  the 
grand  vizier  123.  Urged  to  a 
double  attack,  124.  Transports 
the  fleet  by  land,  124.  Builds  a 
mole  and  plants  a  cannon,  125. 
Avarice  of,  126.  Proposition 
by,  to  his  enemies,  126.  Final 
assault  by,  126,  128.  Double 
pay  and  rewards  offered  by, 
127,  135.  In  the  final  assault, 
129.  Treatment  of  Greeks  by, 
134,  138.  Enters  the  city  in 
triumph,  136.  Enters  St.  So- 
phia, 136  ;  protects  it  and  con- 
verts it  into  a  mosque,  137  ; 
performs  the  namaz  of  prayer 
and  thanksgiving  in  it. 
Goes  to  the  palace,  137.  His 
regard  for,  and  treatment  of, 
Constantino,  137  ;  of  Lucas 
Notaras,  137.  Clemency  and 


cruelty  of,  138.  Returns  to 
Adrianople,  138.  Establishes 
himself  at  Constantinople,  138. 
His  palace  or  seraglio,  139. 
Aids  in  the  election  and  inves- 
titure of  the  Patriarch,  139. 
Conquest  of  Constantinople  and 
Otranto  by,  160.  Terror  of  the 
name  of,  161.  Could  not  con- 
quer the  Knights  of  Rhodes, 
161.  Inscription  on  the  tomb 
of,  161.  Grandfather  of  Soli- 
man  II. ,  1 90.  Treatment  of  Zi- 
zim,  son  of,  231,  note.  See 
Constantine,  Constantinople, 
Greeks,  and  Turks. 

Monaco,  vessel  lost  near,  214. 

Moncey,  French  Marshal,  appears 
before  Zaragoza,  333. 

Money,  Impeachment  of  the  Scip- 
ios  for  embezzling,  60. 

Monilio,  Hieronymo,  represen- 
tations to  the  Rhodians  by, 
219. 

Mons  Janiculus,  247,  note. 

Montfaucon  of  Mumpelgard,  90. 

Moos,  Henry  of,  92. 

Morea,  121. 

Morgarten,  92. 

Morgut,  Gregory  de,  176.  Suc- 
cors the  bastion  of  England, 
209. 

Morsath,  86. 

Mortier,  Marshal,  appears  before 
Xaragoza,  383. 

Motta,  Marquis  della,  257. 

Muller,  Gottfried,  95. 

Miillrr,  John  von,  his  account  of 
the  battle  of  Sempach,  89.  Hii 
1 1  istory  of  the  Swiss  Confeder- 
acy, 89. 

Mulfint'ii,  Knight  Albert  of,  94. 

Mummius,  Lucius  and  Quintus, 
on  an  order  respecting  Scipio, 
65,  66. 

.Muiii|icl«ranl,  Monlfauoon   of,  90. 

MmnprliMnl,  Richard  of,  95. 

Muskets,  at  the  siege  of  Constan- 
tinople, 118. 

Mustapha,  188.  Fights  at  the 
bastion  of  England,  195.  A»» 


INDEX. 


401 


sank  on  the  bastion  of  England 
by,  197.  Unsuccessful,  198. 
Proposes  a  general  assault,  199, 
200.  Fate  of,  205. 
Mycenae,  soldiers  from,  at  Ther- 
mopylae, 12. 

N. 

Nabis,  Lacedaemon  left  to,  72. 

Nsevius,  Marcus,  accusation  of 
Scipio  by,  68.  Plebeian  tri- 
bune, 68. 

Napier,  Colonel,  327.  In  the 
Peninsular  War,  327. 

Naples,  demanded  by  Francis  I., 
234. 

Napoleon,  reply  of  Louis  XVIII. 
to  the  proposition  of,  235.  First 
ancestor  of,  in  Corsica,  237, 
note. 

Nasica,  Publins  Cornelius,  mar- 
ries a  daughter  of  Scipio,  69. 
Appeals  to  the  tribunes,  70. 
Speech  by,  70. 

Nassau,  Adolphus  of,  74. 

Navarre,  demanded  by  Francis 
I.,  234. 

Netherlands,  sieges  of  Leyden 
and  Ostend,  in  the  war  of,  for 
independence,  287.  Consid- 
erations on  the  war  in,  287. 
Dikes  in,  opened  upon  the 
Spaniards,  291,  292.  Rebel 
against  Philip  II.,  308.  Aided 
by  Elizabeth,  308.  See  Hol- 
landers. 

Newport,  Thomas  de,  214. 

Nicholas  V.,  Pope,  on  the  ruin  of 
Constantinople,  112.  Name 
of,  commemorated  in  St.  So- 
phia's, 116. 

Nizzaro  reenforces  Rhodes,  180. 

Nobles  killed  at  Sempach,  96. 

Northumberland,  Earl  of,  321. 

Notaras,  Lucas,  treatment  of,  and 
of  his  wife,  by  Mohammed  II., 
137. 

Notre  Dame  de  la  Victoire,  de- 
molished, 215. 

Nueres,  Chevalier  de,  172. 

Nuremberg,  Burgrave  of,  101. 
34* 


O. 

Oberkirch,  Hanns  of,  94. 

Oberkirch,  John  of,  90. 

Ocean,  see  Tides. 

Ochsenstein,  John  of,  90,  95. 

Oecumenic,  100. 

CEtean  mountains,  18. 

Ogli,  Baltha,  Turkish  Admiral, 
facts  respecting,  123. 

Oil,  used  to  prevent  the  burning 
of  cannon,  119.  Boiling,  197, 
201. 

Olympiads,  9,  note. 

Olympic  games,  9.  Herodotus 
reads  portions  of  his  history  at 
the,  9.  Recurrence  of  the, 
before  the  battle  of  Thermo- 
pylae, 14. 

Omedes,  John  d',  shot  in  the  eye, 
190. 

Onetes,traitor  at  Thermopylae, 17. 

Onochonus,  the  river,  insufficient 
for  Xerxes'  army,  11. 

Oppenheim,  145. 

Opuntian  Locrians,  aid  of,  solicit- 
ed, to  oppose  Xerxes  at  Ther- 
mopylae, 12.  Oppose  a  retreat, 
14. 

Orange,  Philibert  of,  248. 

Orange,  see  William. 

Oratory,  as  taught  by  the  Soph- 
ists, 31. 

Orchomenus,  soldiers  from,  at 
Thermopylae,  12. 

Order  of  the  Knights  of  Malta, 
see  Hospitallers. 

Orleans,  Duke  of,  279. 

Orsiphantus,  sons  of,  distinguish- 
ed at  Thermopylae,  22. 

Orvieto,  arrival  of  the  Pope  at, 
268,  269. 

Ostend,  Sieges  of  Leyden  and, 
287,  296.  Duration  and  un- 
certainty of  the  siege  of,  296 
Description  of,  297.  Surround- 
ed, 298.  Sir  Francis  Vere  gov- 
ernor of,  298.  Siege  of,  com- 
mitted to  John  di  Rivas,  299. 
Succors  received  in,  300.  Mar- 
quis Spinola  takes  command  of 
the  siege  of,  301.  Measures 


402 


INDEX. 


for  taking,  by  force,  302.  Ap- 
prehensions for,  304.  Consult- 
ation for  relieving,  304.  Sur- 
render of,  305.  Numbers  lost 
there,  306.  Visit  to,  by  the 
Archduke  and  Infanta,  306. 
Condition  of,  306.  See  Bre- 
dene,  St.  Alberto,  and  Spinola. 

Otho  of  Paris,  94. 

Othomari,  83. 

Otranto,  conquered,  160. 

Ottenburg,  Ulrich  of,  93. 

Otto  of  Hochberg,  Margrave,  94. 

Ouazon,  William,  175. 

Our  Lady  of  the  Pillar,  church 
of,  339. 

Ovius,Ofilius  Calavius  son  of,  50. 

Oxford,  Earl  of,  321. 

P. 

Pffitus,  Publius  ^Elius,  nominated 

master  of  horse  at  Rome,  51. 
Palaeologus,    Basha,     attack    on 

Rhodes  by,  189,  190. 
Palaeologus,  John,  on  a  union  of 

the    Greeks    and   Latins,  115. 
Palaeologus,  see  Constantino. 
Palafox,  General  of  the  Zarago- 

zans,  329.     Confides  in  Suss, 

329.  Removal  of  the  dead  by, 

330.  Aid  of,  demands  terms 
of  surrender,  338.     Sick,  339. 
See  Zaragoza. 

Palafox,  Don  Francisco,  329. 

Palestine,  123. 

Palos,  in  Spain,  158. 

Panin,  minister  of  Catharine  II., 
paid  by  Frederic  II.,  244,  note. 

Pantiles,  survivor  at  Thermopylae, 
fate  of,  23. 

Pappenheim,  Ulrich  von,  Marshal 
of  the  German  empire,  145, 
IK;. 

Papus,  Marcus  VEmilus,  appoint- 
ed dictator  at  Rome,  51. 

Parambolin,  181. 

Paris,  Otho  of,  94. 

Parker,  Arrhbishop,  p.-itron  of 
John  Stowe,  death  of,  ::  I  I . 

Parma,  Duke  of,  :n:i.  The  Ar- 
mada not  to  communicate  with, 


314.  Commands  in  Flanders, 
314.  Preparations  of  the,  early, 
317.  Blockaded,  319.  Troops 
assembled  by,  in  Flanders,  319. 
To  disembark  near  London, 
319.  Concert  between  the  Ar- 
mada and  the,  323,  324. 

Passau,  106. 

Path,  see  Anopoe. 

Paul  V.,  Pope,  287. 

Pausanias  carries  the  bones  of 
Leonidas  to  Sparta,  21,  note. 

Pavia,  siege  of,  235. 

Peloponnesus,  number  of  troops 
from,  at  Thermopylae,  12. 
Troops  from,  think  of  a  retreat, 
14. 

Peninsular  War,  327. 

Perez,  Alphonso,  Duke  of  Medina 
Sidonia,  chief  general  in  the 
Spanish  Armada,  316.  To 
steer  to  Flanders,  319.  Re- 
turn of,  to  Spain,  325.  Set 
Armada. 

Peri,  or  Pyrrhus,  Basha,  treat- 
ment of  Jaxi  by,  178.  Counsel 
of,  as  to  an  attack  on  Rhodes, 
182.  Asks  the  presence  of 
Soliman,  183.  Influence  of, 
over  Soliman,  185.  Intercedes 
for  the  troops,  185,  186.  Vig- 
ilance and  bravery  of,  at  the 
bastion  of  Italy,  196  ;  at  an- 
other bastion,  197.  Treatment 
of,  by  the  Sultan,  205.  At- 
tacks the  Italian  platform,  217. 
Representations  by,  to  calm 
the  Sultan,  218.  Exhorts  the 
Rhodians  to  surrender,  218. 
See  Turks. 

Pericles,  Herodotus  and  Phidias 
contemporary  with,  9. 

Perrucey,  Robert,  Judge  of 
Rhodes,  deputy  to  Soliman II., 
223.  Returns,  224. 

Persia,  10.  Soliman  rcenforced 
from,  228. 

Persians,  repeatedly  repulsed  at 
Thermopylae,  16.  Illustrious, 
killed,  21.  See  Leonidas,  Me- 
des,  Thermopylae,  and  Xerxes. 


INDEX. 


403 


Petef,  Doctor,  the  King's  chief 
secretary,  275. 

Peter  of  Aarberg,  94. 

Petermann  ofGundoldingen,  Avo- 
yer  of  Lucerne,  wounded,  92. 
Last  words  of,  95. 

Petilii,  prosecute  Scipio,  60. 
Gracchus  on  the,  64.  Re- 
proached by  the  senate,  64. 
Supposed  to  be  instigated  by 
Cato,  65.  Propose  and  advo- 
cate an  order  respecting  Scipio, 
after  his  death,  65,  66. 

Peutinger,  Doctor,  154. 

Phanagoras,  Onetes  son  of,  17. 

Phenar,  gate  of,  forced,  131. 

Phidias,  contemporaries  with,  9. 

Philelphus,  on  the  number  of 
Turks  before  Constantinople, 
113.  Latin  ode  to  Mohammed 
by,  134. 

Philerme,  Mount,  176.  Soliman 
II.  builds  a  house  on,  206. 

Philibert  of  Orange,  248. 

Philip,  Macedonia  left  to,  72. 

Philip  of  Burgundy,  173. 

Philip  of  Feilitsch,  145. 

Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hessia,  151, 
152. 

Philip  de  Villiers,  see  Adam. 

Philip  II.,  character  of,  308.  Re- 
bellion of  Netherlands  against, 
308.  Resolves  to  subdue  Eliz- 
abeth, 309.  On  the  destruction 
of  his  Armada,  311.  Three 
years  preparing,  316.  See  Ar- 
mada. 

Philips,  Peter,  killed,  205. 

Philo,  Q,uintus  Publilius,  elected 
consul,  52. 

Phlius,  soldiers  from,  at  Ther- 
mopylae, 12. 

Pfaoceans,  solicited  for  the  battle 
at  Thermopylae,  13.  Oppose  a 
retreat,  14.  Defend  the  pass, 
16, 18.  Thessalians  led  against 
the,  18.  Discovery  of  the  Per- 
sians by  the,  18.  Retreat  be- 
fore Hydarnes  and  Ephialtes, 
19. 

Phoenix,  the  river,  12.     Fourteen 


furlongs  from  Thermopylae,  12. 

Phranza,  on  the  Turkish  forces 
before  Constantinople,  114.  On 
the  fighting  men  in  the  city, 
114.  Fact  from,  118.  On  the 
loss  of  Turks,  122.  On  the 
meeting  of  the  Greeks  before 
the  final  assault,  128.  Enslav- 
ed and  liberated,  134.  Ran- 
soms his  wife,  134.  Fate  of 
his  children,  134. 

Phrataguna,  sons  of,  killed  at 
Thermopyla?,  21. 

Pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  158. 

Pink,  a  ship,  177. 

Pinnace,  326. 

Pisa,  Archbishop  of,  a  hostage, 
265. 

Pistoja,  Bishop  of,  a  hostage,  265. 

Plataeae,  victory  at,  10.  Bravery 
of  Aristodemus  at,  23.  The- 
bans  killed  at,  24.  Socrates  at 
the  battle  of,  29. 

Plato,  The  Death  of  Socrates  by, 
28,  30.  Disciple  of  Socrates,  28. 
Master  of  Aristotle,  28.  Dia- 
logues of,  commended,  30. 
Cicero  on  the  Apology  of,  30. 
Desires  to  be  surety  for  Soc- 
rates, 33.  Purport  of  the  Dia- 
logues of,  35.  His  feelings  at 
the  taking  of  poison  by  Socra- 
tes, 38.  Taylor's  Translation 
of,  39,  note.  See  Socrates. 

Pleminius,  tumult  raised  by,  61. 

Plethron,  one  hundred  feet,  12, 
note. 

Poggio,  on  Jerome  of  Prague, 110. 

Poison,  conversations  of  Socrates 
respecting  the,  37-39.  Brought 
to  Socrates  and  taken,  38  Op- 
eration of  the,  39. 

Politics,  conduct  of  Socrates  as 
to,  29. 

Polydorus,  13. 

Pommerols,  Gabriel  de,  commis- 
sioner at  Rhodes,  165.  Lieu- 
tenant-general, 165,  176. 

Pompey,  see  Colonna. 

Pontius,  Caius,  speech  by,  after 
the  unsuccessful  mission  to  the 


404 


INDEX. 


Romans,  41.  Encamps  near 
Caudium,  42.  Sends  soldiers, 
disguised,  to  Calatia,  42.  Ru- 
mor spread  by,  to  deceive  the 
Romans,  42.  His  reply  to  a 
proposition-  from  the  ensnared 
Romans,  45.  Visit  to,  by  the 
Roman  consuls,  47  ;  their  con- 
versation, 47.  Refusal  of,  to 
accept  the  surrender  of  the  con- 
suls and  tribunes  from  Rome, 
57.  Dismisses  the  Romans,  58. 
See  Samnites. 

Pontius,  Herennius,  father  of 
Caius  Pontius,  41.  Consulted 
as  to  the  disposition  of  the  Ro- 
man army,  44.  Advice  by,  44. 
Carried  to  camp,  and  gives  rea- 
sons, 45.  Plans  of,  not  approv- 
ed, 45.  Carried  home,  45. 

Pope,  enmity  to  the,  at  Constan- 
tinople, 118.  Prohibits  Lu- 
ther's writings,  and  excommu- 
nicates him,  141.  Includes  Lu- 
ther and  his  adherents  in  a  bull, 
142.  Decline  of  the  power  of 
the,  233.  Appoints  a  legatine 
court,  273.  Assent  of  the,  re- 
quired by  Campeggio  285, 
286.  See  Adrian  VI. 


ander  VI.,  Clement  VII 
VIII. ,  John  XXIII. 


Alex- 
,  Hen- 


Julius 
Nich- 


II.,  Leo  X.,  Martin  V. 

olas    V.,   Paul  V.,  Sixtus  V., 

Sylvius,  and  Urban  VIII. 

Porsena,  hostages  given  to,  58. 

Port,  Antony  "of,  92. 

Porta  Flaminia,  at  Rome,  245, 
note. 

Porta  di  Populo,  245. 

Porta  Settimiana,  247. 

Portugal  joins  in  the  Armada,  316. 

Portuguese  vessel,  captured  in 
1592,  317. 

Postumius,  Spurius,  Consul  of 
Rome,  41.  Speeches  by,  on 
the  Caudino  peace,  52,  53. 
Surrender  of,  to  the  Samnites, 
62,  56,  57.  Approbation  of, 
56.  Bound,  57.  Strikes  the 
herald,  57,  58.  Pontius  re- 
monstrates with,  57. 


Potemkin,  244,  note. 

Prague,  Jerome  of,  110. 

Prejan  de  Bidoux,  sustains  Buck, 
198.  Wounded,  199.  Succors 
the  post  of  Spain,  217.  Coun- 
sel of,  to  the  Grand-master, 
221.  Meets  Turks  bringing  a 
letter,  223. 

Priesthood,  agricultural,  40. 

Priory,  169,  note. 

Prisoners,  ancient  ideas  as  to, 
135. 

Propontis,  troops  along  the,  113. 
Turkish  fleet  on  the,  114. 

Protestants, fought  with  Catholics, 
240,  note.  Contest  between 
Roman  Catholics  and,  308. 

Provence,  Knights  of  the  Lan- 
guage of,  160.  Bastion  of,  at 
Rhodes,  175.  Attacks  on  the 
post  of,  209. 

Prytaneum,  Socrates  refers  to  a 
public  maintenance  in  the,  33. 

Public  maintenance,  Socrates  de- 
mands, 33. 

Public  money,  Impeachment  of 
the  Scipios  for  embezzling,  60. 

Publilius,  see  Philo. 

Pucci,  Cardinal,  wounded  and 
taken  into  the  castle  of  St.  An- 
gelo,  244. 

Punishment,  according  to  Atheni- 
an courts,  33.  Socrates  on  his 
own,  33. 

Purpureo,  Lucius  Furius,  on  an 
order  in  the  senate,  respecting 
Scipio,  66. 

Pylse,  Straits  o.f  Thermopylaj  call- 
ed, 12. 

Pylaea,  council  at,  set  a  price  on 
the  head  of  Ephialtes,  17. 

Pylagorse  set  a  price  on  the  head 
of  Ephialtes,  17 

Pyrrhus,  see  Peri. 

Q. 

Quintus,  sec  Mmmnius. 

R. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  321. 
Randegh,  Hanns  of,  96. 
Rathsamhausen,  95. 


INDEX. 


405 


Recaldo,  Don  Martino,  of  Can- 
tabria,  Vice-Admiral  in  the 
Spanish  Armada,  316. 

Reformation,  state  of  the,  at  the 
time  of  Luther's  appearance  at 
Worms,  141.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  233. 
In  the  Catholic  Church,  308. 

Reichard,  Archbishop  of  Treves, 
attempts  to  procure  recantation 
from  Luther,  146,  154. 

Reinhard  of  Wehmgen,  90. 

Renzo  da  Ceri,  Captain,  238,  note. 
Cry  and  flight  of,  242,  245. 

Revival  of  letters,  112. 

Rheinach,  Lords  of,  killed,  96. 
Hemmann,  96. 

Rhine,  Huss's  ashes  thrown  into 
the,  109.  Branch  of  the,  at 
Leyden,  289. 

Rhodes,  Vertot's  account  of  the 
Siege  and  Surrender  of,  158. 
Conquered  by  Knights  Hospi- 
tallers, 160.  Turkish  arma- 
ment against,  161.  Commis- 
sioners for  supplying  with  pro- 
visions, 164-166.  Fortifications 
of,  improved,  169.  Troops  for 
the  defence  of,  172.  Employ- 
ment of  the  slaves  of,  172. 
Chains  across  the  port  of,  172. 
Topographical  account  of,  173. 
Colossus  of,  173.  Bulwarks  of, 
committed  to  five  old  Knights, 
175.  Two  nations  in,  179. 
Turkish  female  conspirators  in, 
184.  Sally  from,  under  Bar- 

,  tholomew  and  Scaramose,  190. 
Want  of  gunpowder  at,  191. 
Mode  of  the  siege  thus  far,  193. 
Treachery  of  a  Jew  in,  199. 
General  assault  on,  200.  Plun- 
der of,  promised  to  the  Turks, 
200.  Bravery  of  women  in,  202. 
New  method  of  siege  against, 
206.  Treason  in,  209.  Gen- 
eral interest  in,  213.  Knights 
called  to  aid,  214.  Turkish 
communications  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of,  219.  Internal  divisions 
in,  220.  Advice  of  a  council 


in,  221.  Negotiations  at,  223. 
Tumult  in,  224.  Articles  for 
the  surrender  of,  227.  Treaty 
of,  violated,  230.  Final  em- 
barcation  at,  231.  See  Adam, 
Amaral,  Knights,  and  Turks. 

Ricard,  Raimond  de,  175. 

Richard  of  Mumpelgard,  95. 

Richard  II.,  French  fleet  against, 
320. 

Ridley,  Doctor,  275.  Appeals  to 
Wolsey,  respecting  Catharine, 
282. 

Ridolfi,  Lawrence,  a  hostage,  265. 

Riga,  Bishop  of,  conducts  HUBS 
from  prison  to  the  cathedral, 
100. 

Rings,  gold  and  iron,  51,  note. 

Rivas,  John  di,  Campmaster,  left 
in  command  of  the  siege  of 
Ostend,  299.  Diligence  of,  299, 
300. 

Robert,  Earl  of  Leicester,  Lord 
General,  313. 

Rochester,  Bishop  of,  275.  See 
Fisher. 

Rodomont,  247,  note.  See  Gon- 
zagua. 

Roger,  Raimond,  175. 

Roman  Army,  The  Surrender  of 
the,  at  the  Defile,  near  Caudi- 
um,  40.  Time  of  the  surrender 
of  the,  41.  Marches  to  relieve 
Lucernia,  in  Apulia,  42.  En- 
snared in  the  defile  near  Cau- 
dium,  43.  Consultation  as  to 
disposing  of  the,  44,  45.  Fruit- 
less efforts  of  the,  to  escape, 
45.  Proposition  from  the,  to 
the  Samnites,  45.  Terms  for 
the  capitulation  of  the,  45. 
Effect  of  Pontius's  reply,  46. 
Speech  of  Lucius  Lentulus, 
lieutenant-general  of  the,  46. 
Hostages  given  by  the,  48. 
Consuls  reproached  by  the,  48. 
Particulars  of  the  surrender  of 
the,  48.  Passes  under  the 
yoke,  49.  See  Romans. 

Roman  Catholics,  see  Protestants. 

Roman     Consuls,   Calvinus    and 


406 


INDEX. 


Postumius,  41.  Speech  of 
Lentulus  to,  at  the  Caudine 
Forks,  46.  Visit  Pontius,  47. 
Excitement  at  the  return  of  the, 
to  the  army,  48.  Treatment  of 
the,  at  the  surrender,  48,  49. 
Kindness  shown  to  the,  by  the 
Capuans,  49.  Their  mortifica- 
tion and  grief,  49,  50.  Return 
to  Rome  and  shut  themselves 
up,  51.  Dictator  and  master 
of  the  horse  nominated  by  the, 

51.  Philo  and  Cursor  elected, 

52.  See  Postumius. 

Roman  Senate,  consideration  of 
the  Caudine  peace  by  the,  52. 
Speech  of  Postumius  before  the, 
52.  Thanks  by,  to  Tiberius 
Gracchus,  64.  Reproaches  the 
Petilii,64.  Order  proposed  in, 
after  the  death  of  Scipio,  65. 
Inquiry  respecting  Scipio  Afri- 
canus  ordered  by  the,  66. 

Roman  Senators,  the  latus  clavus 
worn  by,  51,  note. 

Roman  Tribunes,  surrender  of,  to 
the  Samnites,  53,  54,  56.  Ac- 
cusation against  Scipio  by  the 
plebeian,  61.  Deserted  by  the 
people  to  accompany  Scipio,  62. 
Remarks  by  the,  on  the  excuse 
offered  by  Scipio,  63.  See 
Gracchus. 

Romania,  129. 

Romans,  aid  the  Capuans  and  de- 
feat the  Samnites,  40.  War 
renewed  between  the  Samnites 
and,  40.  Speech  of  Caius  Pon- 
tius, the  Sabine  commander,  in 
regard  to  the,  41.  The  Cau- 
dine peace  between  the  Sam- 
nites  and  the,  47.  In  the  six- 
teenth century,  251,  note.  See 
Roman,  and  Rome. 

Rome,  on  ransoming,  from  the 
Ganls,  46.  On  the  defence  of, 
47.  Subdued  by  Gauls,  50. 
Aflliction  at,  upon  hearing  of 
the  surrender  of  the  army  to 
the  Samnites,  51.  Arrival  of 
the  troops  at,  51.  The  consuls 


at,  51.  Dictator  and  master 
of  horse,  appointed  at,  51.  In- 
terregnum at,  52.  Office  of  in- 
terrex  at,  held  by  Maximus  and 
by  Corvus,  52.  Ingratitude  of, 
towards  Scipio  Africanus,  60, 
65.  Bonaparte's  account  of  the 
sack  of,  in  1527,  233,  236.  As- 
saulted, 236.  Horrible  scenes 
in,  after  its  capture,  236.  Pen- 
etrated, 238,  241.  Confusion 
in,  244.  Slaughter  at,  246. 
General  entry  into,  248.  Des- 
perate resignation  in,  248.  Bar- 
barities in,  249,  250.  Traits 
of  Roman  firmness  in,  251. 
Measures  for  procuring  riches 
in,  252.  Tortures  in,  255. 
Duration  of  the  tyranny  in, 
260.  Famine  and  pestilence 
in,  260,  267.  Escape  of  the 
Pope  from,  268.  Troops  leave, 
269.  See  Clement  VII.,  Ger- 
mans, St.  Angelo,  and  Span- 
iards. 

Romulus,  agricultural  priesthood 
by,  40,  note. 

Rotenburg,  bailiffs  of  Lucerne  of, 

75.  Wrested  from  Grimm,  89 
Troops  from,  at  Sempach,  92. 

Rotondo,  Monte,  245. 
Rotterdam,  boats  at,  for  relieving 

Leyden,  292. 
Rotzberg,    King's    bailiff  in    the 

castle  of,  attempts  an  intrigue, 

76.  Castle  of,  taken,  86. 
Rudolph  of  Hapaburg,   Emperor 

of  ( ii-riiiniiv,  74. 
Rudolph  the  Harrass,  fM. 
Rudolph,  Count  of  Sulz,  90. 
Russ,  crossed,  89. 
Rutlin,  82. 


Sack  of  Rome,  in  1527,  233,  237. 

Salamis,  victory  at,  10. 

St.  Alberto,  fort,  near  Ostend, 
2«>7.  Bank  run  out  from,  298. 
Battery  near,  298.  Platform 
near,  299.  Attack  near,  802 

St.  Ambrose,  gate  of,  175. 


INDEX. 


407 


St.  Angelo,  castle  of,  at  Rhodes, 
173. 

St.  Angelo,  castle  of,  at  Rome, 
239,  and  239,  note  Retreat 
to,  by  Renzo,  243.  The  Pope 
carried  to,  243.  Thronged, 
243.  Account  of,  243,  note. 
Cardinals  carried  into,  244. 
Attacked,  248.  Guarded,  254. 
Regular  blockade  of,  255.  Fam- 
ine in,  263.  Clement's  escape 
from  the,  268. 

St.  Asaph,  Bishop  of,  275. 

St.  Aubin,  Joachim  de,  175. 

St.  Augustin,  at  Zaragoza,  ef- 
forts against,  336.  Fortifica- 
tions near,  abandoned,  338. 

St.  Camelle,  Anastasius  de,  177. 

St.  Catharine,  gate  of,  172. 

St.  Elme,  or  St.  Erme,  castle  of, 
174. 

St.  Engracia,  convent  of,  at  Zara- 
goza, 328.  Efforts  directed 
against,  336.  Progress  at,  337. 

St.  George,  gate  of,  175. 

St.  Jacobi,  day  of,  referred  to, 
80. 

St.  Jaille,  Didier  Tholon  of,  172. 
Commander  of,  208. 

St.  John,  Brothers  of,  159.  See 
Hospitallers. 

St.  John's  church,  at  Rhodes, 
174,  212.  Steeple,  187  ;  de- 
molished, 188. 

St.  Lazar,  convent  of,  carried  by 
assault,  338. 

St.  Leu,  Count,  237. 

St.  Marie  de  la  Victoire,  175,  181. 

St.  Mark's  church,  176. 

St.  Mary's  church,  at  Rhodes,- 
223. 

St.  Michael,  statue  of,  243,  note. 

St.  Monica,  at  Zaragoza,  efforts 
against,  336. 

St.  Nicholas,  tower  of,  172,  173. 
Bastion  adjoining,  173.  Guyot 
de  Castelane  to  defend  the, 
176.  Attacked,  188,  189. 
Chancellor  d'Amaral  carried 
to  and  tried,  210. 

St.     Pancratius,      army      enters 


through  the  gate  of,  at  Rome, 
246.     Wall  Vom,  247. 

St.  Pantaleon,  church  of,  demol 
ished,  215. 

St.  Peter,  castle  of,  surrendered, 
227. 

St.  Prix,  Claude  de,  176. 

St.  Romanus,  gate  of,  at  Constan- 
tinople, 113.  Tower  of,  over- 
turned, 120  ;  restored,  121. 
Four  towers  near,  levelled, 
125.  Passed  through,  in  tri- 
umph, 136. 

St.  Sophia  cathedral,  united  com- 
munion of  Greeks  and  Latins 
in,  116.  Deserted,  as  being 
polluted,  117.  Sacrament  re- 
ceived in,  by  Constantine  and 
others,  128.  Thronged  after 
the  subjection  of  Constantino- 
ple, 132.  Treatment  of  persons 
found  in,  133.  Despoiled,  135. 
Transformed  into  a  mosque, 
137.  Prayer  proclaimed  from 
the  turret  of,  137.  Endowed 
and  beautified,  139.  See  Mo- 
hammed II. 

Salaturn,  castle  built  at,  79. 

Salviati,  James,  a  hostage,  265. 

Samnites,  frugal,  industrious,  and 
brave,  40.  Agricultural,  40. 
Agricultural  priesthood  among 
the,  40.  League  among  the, 
40.  Capua  attacked  by,  40. 
Romans  aid  the  Capuans,  and 
subdue  the,  40.  War  renew- 
ed between  the  Romans  and 
the,  40.  Roman  legions  made 
prisoners  by  the,  40.  Caius 
Pontius  commander  of  the,  41. 
Encamp  near  Caudium,  42. 
Reported  to  be  besieging  Lu- 
ceria,  42.  Stratagem  practis- 
ed by  the,  on  the  Romans,  43. 
Consultation  of  Herennius  Pon- 
tius by  the,  respecting  the  fate 
of  the  Romans,  44.  Herenni- 
us brought  to  the  camp  of  the, 
45.  Proposition  to  the,  by  the 
Romans,  and  the  reply,  45. 
Discussion  and  speeches  in  the 


408 


INDEX. 


Roman  senate  respecting  the 
peace  with  the,  52.  Consuls, 
quaestors,  and  tribunes  surren- 
dered to  the,  56,  57.  Warlike 
movements  against  the,  56. 
See  Pontius. 

Samnium,  account  of,  40. 

Samoa,  9. 

Sampson,  Dr.,  Bishop  of  Chiches- 
ter,  275. 

Sangiac,  or  Sanjak,  129,  note. 

Sanguessa,  333. 

Santa  Croce,  lady  and  daughter 
of  the  family  of,  ransomed,  262. 

Saragossa,  see  Zaragoza. 

Sardinia,  vessel  stranded  on,  214. 

Sarnen,  castle  of,  83.  Taken, 
87. 

Scaramose,  Benedict,  sally  under, 
at  Rhodes,  190. 

Schaffhausen,  banner  of,  96. 

Schlick,  Caspar,  effect  on,  of  the 
sentence  against  Huss,  106. 
Facts  respecting,  106. 

Schonan,  Lord  of,  94. 

Schurf,  D.,  Luther's  advocate  and 
protector  at  Worms,  147. 

Schwytz,  conversation  of  Gessler 
in,  80,  81.  Opposition  in,  to 
oppression,  83.  Success  in,  88. 
Leopold  found  by  a  soldier  of, 
94.  See  Uri. 

Scipio  Africanus,  Publius  Corne- 
lius, prosecuted,  60,  64,  68. 
Topics  of  conversation  till  the 
day  for  the  trial  of,  61.  Con- 
sul and  censor,  61,  65.  His 
escorts  to  the  forum,  61,  62. 
Character  of  his  defence  at  his 
trial,  61.  Charges  brought 
against,  61.  Assailed  with  envy, 
61.  Second  day  of  the  tml 
of,  the  anniversary  of  a  victo- 
ry, 62.  Goes  to  return  thanks 
to  the  deities,  62.  Accom- 
panied by  the  whole  assem- 
bly, 62.  His  triumph  over  8y- 
ph.ix  and  the  Carthaginians,  62. 
Retires  to  Liternum,  62.  Does 
not  appear  on  the  day  of  ad- 
journment, 63.  Excuse  offer- 


ed for,  by  Lucius  Scipio,  63. 
Enmity  between  Sempronius 
Gracchus  and,  63.  Remarks 
of  Gracchus  respecting,  63. 
Deeds  of,  enumerated  by  Sem- 
pronius Gracchus,  64.  Last 
days  of,  at  Liternum,  64,  68. 
Dying  commands  of,  65.  Re- 
marks on,  65.  Movements  by 
Cato,  after  the  death  of,  65. 
Order  proposed  respecting,  after 
his  death,  65.  Culeo  to  hold 
inquiry  respecting,  66.  Culeo's 
feelings  towards,  66,  67.  Said 
to  have  died  at  Rome,  66,  68. 
Memorials  of,  68.  Speech  at- 
tributed to,  68.  In  Etruria,  at 
the  impeachment  of  his  brother, 

68.  Hastens  to  Rome,  68.    In- 
temperate violence  of,  69.  Facts 
by    Gracchus    respecting,    69. 
Husbands  of  the  daughters  of, 

69.  ^Emilia  wife  of,  70.    Facts 
respecting,  mentioned  by  Nasi- 
ca,  71.     Not  present  at  the  vic- 
tory over  Antiochus,  71. 

Scipio  Asiaticus,  Lucius  Corne- 
lius, excuses  the  absence  of 
Scipio  Africanus,  on  the  day 
for  his  trial,  63.  Appeals  to 
the  tribunes  of  commons,  63. 
Participator  in  his  brother's  ex- 
ploits, 64.  Opposes  an  order 
respecting  his  brother,  after  his 
death,  66.  Arraigned  before 
the  pretor  Culeo,  67.  Con- 
victed, 67,  73.  Statue  of,  68. 
Facts  respecting,  mentioned  in 
Nasica's  speech,  71.  War  with 
Antiochua  assigned  to,  71. 
Conqueror  of  Antiochus,  71. 
Treasures  said  to  be  conveyed 
to  the  house  of,  72.  Discharg- 
ed, 73.  Questors  to  take  pos- 
session of  his  property,  73 
Contribution  for,  73. 

Scipio,  Cneius,  facts  as  to,  70. 

Scipio,  Publius,  facts  as  to,  70. 

Snpin-,  Impeachment  of  the,  60. 
Their  influence  in  the  senate, 
66.  Contradictory  accounts  re- 


INPEX. 


409 


specting  the,   68.     Monument 
and  statues  of  the,  68. 

Sea,  see  Tides. 

Selim,  infringes  on  the  privileges 
of  the  Greeks,  140.  Example 
of,  184, 

Selybria,  siege  of,  113. 

Semiramis,  fleet  of,  320. 

Sempach,  The  Battle  at,  in  1386,] 
89.  March  of  the  Duke  of! 
Austria  to,  89.  Situation  of,i 
89.  People  of,  taunted  by  the 
enemy,  90.  Nobles  killed  at, 
96.  See  Leopold,  and  Swiss. 

Senate,  see  Roman. 

Sentence  of  deathi  passed  on  Soc- 
rates, 33.  Time  for  executing, 
34. 

Septimian  gate,  at  Rome,  247. 

Servia,  Turks  aided  from,  181. 

Servius  Sulpicius,  65. 

Seymour,  Henry,  Lord,  command- 
er of  an  English  squadron,  314. 
Ships  under,  326. 

Sforza,  Francis,  reestablished  in 
the  dukedom  of  Milan,  235. 

Shakspeare,  William,  character  of 
Wolsey  by,  271.  Indebted  to 
Cavendish,  271. 

Shepherds,  soldiers  sent  to  Cala- 
tia,  in  the  h*bit  of,  42. 

Sicily,  121. 

Sickingen,  Frrncis  von,  144. 

Sieges  of  Leyden  and  Ostend,  in 
the  War  of  the  Netherlands  for 
Independence,  287,  296.  Of 
Zaragoza,  in  1808,  327.  Re- 
marks on,  327.  See  Leyden, 
Ostend,  and  Zaragoza. 

Siegfried,  of  Erloch,  95. 

Sienna,  Cardinal  of,  treatment  of, 
256. 

Sigismund,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
violates  his  promise  of  a  safe- 
conduct  to  Huss,  100.  Re- 
minded of  his  promise,  100, 
104.  At  the  final  examination 
of  Huss,  101.  Urged  to  exe- 
cute Huss,  101  ;  delivers  him 
for  execution.  106. 

Sigriat  of  TiegseUah,  95. 
35 


Sillinen,  Stephen  of,  92. 
Simonides,  inscription  by,  on  the 

tomb  of  Megistias,  23. 
Singlifico,  Peter,  sent   as   deputy 

to  the  Grand  Signior,  226. 
Siponte,  Archbishop  of,  a  hostage, 

265. 
Sixtine  bridge,  at  Rome,  242,  247, 

248,  257. 
Sixtus  V.,  Pope,  hatred  of  Queen 

Elizabeth  by,  309. 
Slaves,  employment  of  the  Rho- 

dian,  172.     Cut  to  pieces,  192. 
Sluys,   besieged     and     captured, 

305.     Spinola's  attempt  to  re- 
lieve, 305. 
Socrates,  The  Death  of,  by  Plato, 

28,  30.     The  master  of  Plato, 

28.  Character  of  his  philoso- 
phy   and    instructions,  28,   32. 
**  The  great  lawyer  of  antiqui- 
ty," 28.     His  mode  of  reason- 
ing, 28.    Unpopularity  and  per- 
secution  of,  29.     Conduct   of, 
as  to  politics,  29  ;  at  the  battle 
of  Platseae,  29  ;  as   to   voting, 

29.  Religious  charges  brought 
against,   29,   31.     Remarks  on 
him  in  connexion  with  his  death, 
29.  His  regard  for  the  laws,  29, 
31,  35.     His  belief  in  God  and 
immortality,     30.        Ridiculed 
by  Aristophanes,  30,  note,  32. 
Originator  of  the  charge  against, 
31.     Enemies  to,  31.     Difficul- 
ty of  finding   charges   against, 

31.  Conduct  of,  as  a  soldier, 
31  ;  as  a  public  officer,  31  ;  in 
relation  to  generals  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Arginusae,  31.     The  ac- 
cusation against,   32  ;    its    fal- 
sity, 32.     Neutral    conduct  of, 

32.  Declines  the   aid  of  Ly- 
sias,  32.    Character  of  his  judg- 
es, 32.    Conduct  of,  at  his  trial, 

33.  34.     His  estimate  as  to  his 
punishment,  33.     Remarks  by, 
on  public   maintenance,  death, 
imprisonment,  exile,  and   fine, 
33.     Disciples  of,  desire  to  be- 
come   his    sureties,  33.     Sen- 

G.   E. 


410 


INDEX 


tenee  of  death  passed  on,  33 
Speech  by,  to  his  judges,  33 
Delay  in  the  death  of,  34.  Con- 
duct and  conversations  of,  while 
under  sentence  of  death,  35. 
Refuses  to  escape,  35.  Fina 
interview,  with  his  wife  and 
child,  35  ;  with  his  friends,  35 
Argues  the  doctrine  of  immor- 
tality, 35,  36.  His  conversa- 
tion with  Criton,  respecting  his 
children,  35  ;  his  burial,  35, 
36.  Bathes,  and  gives  direc- 
tions to  his  sons,  36.  Interview 
between  the  executioner  and, 
36,  37.  Conversation  by,  re- 
specting the  poison,  37.  His 
remarks  to,  and  respecting,  the 
executioner,  37.  Poison  brought 
to,  and  taken,  38.  Rebukes 
his  friends  for  weakness,  38. 
Operation  of  the  poison  on,  39. 
Last  words  and  death  of,  39. 

Soldiers,  after  the  feudal  militia, 
233. 

Soliman  II.,  armament  fitted  out 
by,  against  Rhodes,  in  1522, 
161.  Declaration  of  war  by, 
178.  Puts  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  army,  184.  His  treat 
ment  of  his  rebellious  army, 
185.  Holds  a  council  of  war, 

199.  Orders  a  general  assault, 

200.  Promises  plunder,   200. 
Personal     encouragement     by, 

201.  Orders  a  retreat  of  Jan- 
izaries,   204.      Treatment    of 
Mnstapha   and   Peri    by,   205. 
Continues  the  siege,  206.     Or- 
ders an  assault  by  Achmet,  213. 
Wrath  of,  at  the  retreat  of  the 
Turks,   218.      Representations 
to,  by  Peri,  218.     Negotiations 
with,  223.     Deputies   sent  to, 
223,225,226.  Declines  a  truce, 
and     commences    firing,    225. 
Negotiation  with,  renewed,  226. 
Treaty  signed  in  the  name  of, 
228.     Reception  of  the  Grand- 
master by,  229.     Goes   to  the 
Grand-master '•    palace,     230. 


Prepares  to  depart,  231.  The 
Grand-master  takes  leave  of, 
232.  See  Adam,  Amaral,  Peri, 
Rhodes,  and  Turks. 

Sollier,  Ernard,  175. 

Sophists,  character  of  their  teach- 
ings, 28,  31.  Unpopularity  of 
Socrates  with  the,  29,  31. 
Teaching  of  oratory  by  the,  31, 

Southey,  Robert,  327. 

Spain,  war  between  Netherlands 
and,  287. 

Spain,  bastion  of,  at  Rhodes,  175. 
Peril  and  bravery  at  the  post 
of,  203.  Achmet's  efforts 
against  the  bastion  of,  206,  216, 
217.  The  Grand-master  de- 
fends, 207.  Bastion  of,  suc- 
cored, 217.  Engagement  at  the 
bastion  of,  225,  226. 

Spalatine,  Luther  writes  to,  front 
Frankfort,  144.  Urges  Luther 
not  to  go  to  Worms,  145.  Ci- 
ted, 151,  152. 

Spaniards,  cruelty  of,  at  Rome, 
237.  Addressed  by  Charles  of 
Bourbon,  237.  Begin  to  break 
into  the  city,  238,  241.  Con- 
duct of,  after  the  flight  of  Ren- 
zo,  245.  Deception  of  the 
Pope  by  the,  246.  Proceed  to 
the  Porta  Settimiana,  247.  En- 
ter the  city,  248.  Cease  to 
slay,  and  are  suspected  of  trea- 
son, 249.  Extortion  of  riches 
by,  253.  Respected  sacred 
places,  257.  More  cruel  than 
Germans,  257,  258.  Inclined 
to  peace,  267.  Measures  for 
routing  the,  at  Leyden,  291. 
Surprised  by  inundation,  292. 
Perish,  294.  Annoyed  by  sharp 
hooks,  294,  note.  Invasion  of 
England  by,  threatened,  313. 
See  Armada,  Leyden ,  and  Zar- 
agoza. 

Spanish  Armada,  see  Armada. 

Sparta,    Kings    of,   13.     Detach- 

in.  nt  loft  to  defend,  14.     Car- 

nian  festival  at,  14,  note.     De- 

maratus,  King  of,  deposed,  19, 


INDEX. 


411 


note.     Bones   of  Leonidas   at, 

21,  note.     Annual  funeral  ora- 
tions and  games  at,  in  commem- 
oration  of  Leonidas,  21,  note. 
Treatment  of  Aristodemus  at, 
after  his  return  from  Thermop- 
ylae, 23  ;  of  Pantiles,  23.     Ad- 
vice oi%  Demaratus  to   Xerxes 
respecting,    24.      Relation    of 
Cythera    to,   25.      Advice    of 
Achsemenes      respecting,      25. 
See  Leonidas. 

Spartans,  three  hundred,  at  the 
battle  of  Thermopylae,  12. 
Consultation  of  the  oracle  by, 
on  the  approach  of  Xerxes,  19. 
Distinguished,  at  Thermopylffi, 

22.  Information    sent    to,   by 
Demaratus,  respecting  Xerxes, 
26.     See  Leonidas. 

Spears,  at  Thermopylae,  16. 

Sperchius,  the  river,  11. 

Spinola,  Marquis,  commands  at 
the  siege  of  Ostend,  301,  302. 
Measures  taken  by,  302.  Ac- 
tivity of,  304.  Attempt  by,  to 
relieve  Sluys,  305.  Commend- 
ed by  the  Archduke  and  Infan- 
ta, 307. 

Standish,  counsel  for  Catharine, 
275. 

Stanhope,  Lord,  application  by, 
to  Vertot,  163,  note. 

Stauffach,  Wernherr  of,  conver- 
sation of  Gessler  the  landvogt 
with,  80,  81.  His  apprehen- 
sions, 81.  Advice  to,  by  his 
wife,  81.  Goes  to  Uri,  81. 
Consults  Furst,  81.  Enters 
into  a  league,  82.  Returns  to 
Scwhytz,83.  Informed  of  Gess- 
ler's  death,  86.  Destroys  the 
castle  of  Lowers,  88.  See  Furst. 

Stein,  89. 

Stephen  ofSillinen,  92. 

Stephens,  Dr.,  275. 

Stokars,  two,  killed,  96 

Stones,  hurled  upon  Turks,  197, 
201. 

Stowe,  John,  308.  Biographical 
notice  of,  311.  Works  by,  311. 


Strada,  289,  note,  293,  note,  294, 
note. 

Stratagem  in  war,  91. 

Strutthan,  see  Winkelreid. 

Sturm,  Caspar,  herald  to  accom- 
pany Luther  to  Worms,  144, 
note. 

Styria,  Gratz  in,  107. 

Sulpicius,  Servius,  City  Pretor,  at 
Rome,  65.  Question  to  the 
senate  by,  on  an  inquiry  re- 
specting Scipio,  66. 

Sulz,  Count  of,  90. 

Surrender  of  the  Roman  Army, 
at  the  Defile  near  Caudium,  40. 

S-ursee,  89.  Fugitives  killed  in, 
97. 

Suss,  P.  Santiago,  a  priest,  activ 
ity  of,  at  Zaragoza,  329. 

Swiss,  see  Uri. 

Swiss  Chronicle,  Tschudi's,  74. 

Swiss  Confederacy,  Miller's,  89. 

Swiss  Confederates,Battle  at  Sem- 
pach  between  the  Austrians  and, 
89.  Position  of,  before  the  bat- 
tle at  Sempach,  89,  91.  Taunted 
by  the  enemy,  90.  Advance, 
91.  Number  of  the,  92.  Arms 
of  the,  92.  Pray,  and  charge 
the  enemy,  92.  Struggle,  92. 
Reenforced  and  prevail,  93. 
Eminent  persons  of  the,  killed, 
95.  Grant  an  armistice,  97. 
Bodies  of,  buried,  98.  Dis- 
persion of  the,  98.  See  Leo- 
pold. 

Swiss  Forest  Districts,  Delivery 
of  the,  74. 

Swiss  guard  repels  Spaniards  at 
Rome,  238. 

Switzerland,  confederacy  for  the 
restoration  of,  82,  83.  See  Uri. 

Sylvius,  on  Caspar  Schlick,  106. 
Pope,  107.  On  Huss,  107. 

Syphax,  King,  Scipio 's  triumph 
over,  62.  Made  prisoner,  64. 

Syracuse,  charges  against  Scipio 
at,  61. 

T. 

Tablets,  sent  to  Sparta,  27. 


412 


INDEX. 


Taurus,  Mount,  72. 

Taylor's  Translation  of  Plato,  39, 
note. 

Tegeatse,  five  hundred,  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Thermopylae,  12. 

Teleclus,  13. 

Tell,  the  word,  84,  note. 

Tell,  William,  does  no  reverence 
to  the  hat  upon  the  pole,  83. 
Arraigned  by  Gessler,  83,  84. 
Shoots  the  apple  from  his  son's 
head,  84.  Intended  to  shoot 
Gessler,  85.  Threatened  with 
imprisonment,  85.  Encounters 
a  storm,  85.  Escapes,  86. 
Kills  Gessler,  86.  Flight  of, 
to  Brunnen,  86.  Carried  to 
Uri,  86.  Concealed,  86.  No- 
tifies confederates,  of  Gessler's 
fate,  86. 

Te'l's  plateau,  85. 

Temple  Bar,  274. 

Terentius,  see  Culeo. 

Terrione,  gate,  at  Rome,  242. 

Thebans,  four  hundred,  at  Ther- 
mopylae, 12.  Accompany  Le- 
onidas, 13.  Under  the  com- 
mand of  Leontiades,  13.  Sus- 
pected of  attachment  to  the 
Medes,  13.  Detained  at  Ther- 
mopylae by  Leonidas,  20.  Join 
the  Persians,  24.  Killed  at 
Platieaj,  24. 

Theobald,  Zacharaeus,  The  War 
of  the  Hussites  by,  99.  Facts 
respecting,  99.  His  account  of 
the  death  of  Huss,  99,  100. 

Thermopylae,  account  of  the  Bat- 
tle of,  9  ;  effect  of  it  on  modern 
civilization,  10  ;  time  of  it,  11. 
Situation  of,  12.  Greeks  en- 
camp at,  12.  Number  of  Gre- 
cian troops  at,  12.  Greeks  at, 
consult  about  a  retreat,  11. 
Horseman  sent  to,  by  Xerxes, 
to  rcconnoiter,  14.  Medes  and 
Persian*  at,  repeatedly  repul- 
sed, 16,21.  Circuit  by  "the  Per- 
sians through  the  mountain 
near,  17-19,  23.  Prediction, 
by  Megistias,  of  the  destruction 
of  Greeks  at,  19.  Council  by 


the  Greeks  at,  19.  Allies  re- 
tire from,  19,  20.  Resolution 
of  Leonidas  to  remain  at,  19. 
Desperate  battle  between  the 
Greeks  and  Barbarians  at, 

20,  21.      Persians    killed    at, 

21.  Greeks  retreat  to   a  hill, 
21.     Lion  of  stone  erected  at, 
21.    Two  epigrams  on  the  sub- 
ject, 21,  note.     Inscriptions  on 
the  tomb  at,  22.     Conduct  of 
Eurytus    and   Aristodemus   at, 
23.     See  Leonidas. 

Theseus,  deliverance  of  Attica  by, 
34.  Ship  of,  annually  despatch- 
ed to  Delos,  34. 

Thespians,  seven  hundred,  at 
Thermopylae,  12.  Remain  with 
Lepnidas  at  Thermopylae,  20. 
Demophilus  leader  of  the,  20. 
Valor  of  the,  22.  Inscription 
to  the,  22. 

Thessa'u Jis,  conducted  against  the 
Phoceans  at  ihe  path  Anopce, 
18.  Favor  the  Thebans,  24. 

Thessaly,  Xerxes'  march  through, 
11. 

Thierstein,  Count  Walleram  of, 
94. 

Thirty  Years'  War,  torture  in  the, 
255,  note. 

Tholon  of  St.  Jaille,  Didier,  172. 

Thucydides,  influence  of  Herodo- 
tus on,  9.  Historical  criticism 
began  with,  10. 

Thunau,  Frederic  of,  145,  160. 

Thuring  of  Ilullwyl,  89.  Killed, 
94. 

Thuringia,  157. 

Tides,  advantage  taken  of,  at  the 
equinoxes,  to  relievo  Leyden, 
291,  293. 

Tiessebach,  Sigrist  of,  95. 

Tilbury,     encampment    at,     309, 

I'.li/abeth's    speech    at, 

309,  315.    March  towards,  815. 

Time,  on  reckoning,  241,  note. 

Tinteville,  ( 'In  v:\li.-r  do,  carries 
the  standard  of  the  crucifix,  177. 

Toll,  meaning  of,  84,  .. 

Tongue,  torture  of  the,  255,  note. 

Torgone,  Pompeio,  an  engineer, 


INDEX. 


413 


wooden  castle  by,  before  Os- 
tend,  301.  Floats  by,  301, 
302.  Cart  and  bridge  by,  303. 

Tortures,  inflicted,  255. 

Totilas,  the  Goth,  246. 

Trachinia,  12.  Xerxes  encamps 
in,  12.  Part  of  Melis,  17,  note. 

Trachinian  mountains,  18. 

Trachinian  rocks,  11. 

Trachis,  situation  of,  12.  Locri- 
ans  and  Phoceans  march  to,  13. 

Trastevere,  the  ward,  at  Rome, 
244. 

Treaty,  see  Caudine  peace. 

Tregonell,  Doctor,  275. 

Tressac,  Oliver  de,  killed,  205. 

Treves,  Archbishop  of,  146.  See 
Reichard. 

Tribunes,  see  Roman. 

Truchsen,  of  Waldburgan,  Otto, 
95. 

Tschudi,  ^Egidius,  extract  from 
The  Swiss  Chronicle  of,  on  the 
Delivery  of  the  four  Swiss  For- 
est Districts,  74.  Biographical 
notice  of,  74.  Remarks  on  his 
Swiss  Chronicle,  74. 

Tudela,  333. 

Tulach,  Hanns  of,  96. 

Turcopoles,  165,  note. 

Turkey,  in  diplomatic  connexion 
with  the  powers  of  Europe,  162. 

Turkish  fleet,  before  Constantino- 
ple, 114.  At  the  entrance  of 
the  Bosphorus,  121.  Charac- 
ter of  the,  122.  Battle  of  the, 
with  the  Christian  squadron, 
122.  Transported  ten  miles 
by  land,  124.  Sails  to  Rhodes, 
180,  181.  Forces  of  the,  181. 

Turks,  conquerors  of  the  Byzan- 
tine empire,  111.  Good  con- 
sequences from  their  barbarity, 
112.  Disposition  and  number 
of  the,  at  Constantinople,  113, 
131.  Progress  of,  against  the 
walla,  119.  Attempt  to  fill  and 
cross  the  ditch,  119.  Attempt 
mines,  120.  Take  the  city, 
131.  Delusive  prophecy  re- 
specting the,  132.  Their  ideas 
respecting  captives,  135.  Mar- 
35* 


itime    power  of  the,   broken, 
161.     Western  Europe  in  dan- 

Eir  from,  161.  Filing  towards 
ycia,  before  the  siege  of 
Rhodes,  166.  Sail  to  Rhodes, 
180,  181.  Repulsed  at  Coos, 
180.  Forces  of  the,  before 
Rhodes,  181.  Land,  182.  In- 
vest Rhodes,  182.  Unsuccess- 
ful, 182.  Discouraged,  183. 
Diversion  in  favor  of,  by  a 
Turkish  woman,  184.  Soli- 
man's  speech  to  them,  185. 
Progress  of,  against  the  city, 
187.  Notice  sent  to,  by  a  Jew- 
ish spy,  187.  Distribution  for 
attacks  by,  188.  Their  attack, 
on  the  post  of  Germany,  188  ; 
on  the  tower  of  St.  Nicholas, 
189  ;  on  the  post  of  Italy,  190, 
196  ;  on  the  bastion  of  Eng- 
land, 194.  Plunder  promised 
to,  200.  Make  a  general  at- 
tack, 201.  Achmet  takes  com- 
mand of  the,  206.  Repulsed, 
215-218.  Number  of,  killed, 
224.  Reenforced  from  Persia, 
228.  See  Achmet,  Constantino, 
Constantinople,  Greeks,  Mo- 
hammed II.,  Rhodes,  and  So- 
liman. 

Tuscans,  league  by  the,  40. 

Tyrants,  two  classes  of,  271. 

U. 

Ulrich  of  Aarburg,  93. 

UlrichofEms,  89,  90. 

Ulrich  of  Hutten  encourages  Lu- 
ther, 146. 

Ulrich  of  Ottenburg,  93. 

Ulrich  von  Pappenheim,  145,  146. 

Umbria,  Duke  of  Urbino  in,  266. 

Unterwalden,  attempt  at  an  in- 
trigue in,  76.  Treatment  of 
the  Melchtals  in,  78.  Exaspe- 
ration in,  79.  Melchtal  and 
Cunrat  go  to,  83.  Bravery  of 
a  man  from,  at  the  battle  of 
Sempach,  93.  Landamman  of, 
killed,  95.  Gives  citizenship 
to  the  son  of  Gruninger,  95. 
See  Uri. 


414 


INDEX. 


Urban  VIII.,  Pope,  287. 

Urbino,  Duke  of,  266. 

Uri,  flight  to,  of  Cunrat,  78  ;  of 
Arnold  von  Melchtal,  78,  82. 
Castle  built  at,  by  command  of 
Gessler,  and  named,  79,  80. 
Reverence  to  a  hat  on  a  pole 
required  at,  80.  Stauffach  vis- 
its, 81.  Ready  for  action,  83. 
Conrad  Landamman  of,  95. 

Uri,  Schwytz,  and  Untervvalden, 
protection  of  the  House  of  Aus- 
tria proffered  to,  74.  Austrian 
officers  appointed  over,  74.  Im- 
perial bailiffs  asked  for,  75. 
Oppressed,  75.  Administration 
of  justice  in,  by  Austrian  offi- 
cers, 75.  Apprehensive  of  Aus- 
trian domination,  75.  Request 
made  of  Albert  by,  75.  Albert's 
treatment  of  the  messengers  of, 

75.  Two   bailiffs   sent  to,  76. 
Complain  to  Albert  of  treatment 
by  his    bailiffs,  76.     Reply  to, 

76.  Increased    oppression    of, 
76-81.     Alliance  of,  81,  82. 

V. 

Valdez,  Don  Pedro  de,  yields  to 
Drake,  322. 

Valdner,  Christopher,  175.  Sus- 
tains Buck,  198.  Killed,  198. 

Valle,  Cardinal  de,  258,  note. 

Vauxmarcus,  Ilanns  of,  95. 

Vavasor,  Sir  Thomas,  321. 

Vehus,  Doctor,  154. 

Veii,  47. 

Verdier,  French  General  at  Zara- 
goza,  328. 

Vere,  Sir  Francis,  Governor  of 
Ostend,  bravery  of,  298. 

Vergati,  Nicholas,  sent  as  deputy 
to  the  Grand  Signior,  226. 

Verona,  Bishop  of,  a  hostage,  265. 

Versage,  Baron,  killed  at  Zarago- 
za,  388. 

Vertot,  Abbu,  The  Siege  and  Sur- 
render of  Rhodes,  in  the  year 
1522,  by,  158,  164.  Facts  as 
to,  162.  Writings  of,  163. 

Vessel,  dimensions  of  a  Portu- 
guese, in  1592,  317. 


Veturius,  see  Calvinus. 

Victoire,  see  Notre  Dame. 

Vienna,  threatened  by  Turks,  161, 
note.  Freed  by  Sobiesky,  161, 
note. 

Villiers,  see  Adam. 

Virtue,  as  regarded  by  the  Soph- 
ists and  by  Socrates,  28,  30. 

Von  Cammerach,  see  Cammerach. 

Von  Eck,  see  Eck. 

Von  Melchtal,  see  Melchtal. 

Von  Mii Her,  see  Miiller. 

Von  Pappenheim,  Ulrich.145,146 

Von  Sickingen,  Francis,  144. 

Von  Stauffach,  see  Stauffach. 

Voting,  practised  by  Socrates,  29. 

W. 

Walachia,  Turks  aided  from,  181. 
Waldburgan,  Otto    Truchsen  of, 

95. 

Waldstalle,  Delivery  of,  74. 
Walleram    of  Thierstein,  Count, 

94. 
Walloons,   302,  303,  304.     Visit 

the  Armada,  323. 
War,  on  taking  advantage  in,  91. 
Warbeck,  Vitus,  on  Luther's  en 

try  into  Worms,  145. 
Warham,  Dr.,  275. 
Wartburg,  castle  of,    near  Eisen 

ach,   Luther    carried    to,   156. 

New      Testament       translated 

there,  157,  note. 

Waxen  tablets,  sent  to  Sparta,  27. 
Wehingen,  Reinhard  of,  90. 
Weissenkirchen,  106. 
Werner  of  Lo,  killed,  96. 
Wernherr  von  Stauffach,  see  Stauf- 
fach. 
Wiclif,     studied     by    Huss,    99. 

Treatment  of  the  ashes  of,  110. 
William  III.,  310. 
William,  Duke  of  Brunswick, 151. 
William,     Count   of  Henneberg, 

151. 
William  of  Orange,  surnamed  the 

Silrnt,  287,  290,  295. 
Wiltshire),  Lord  of,  282,  283. 
Winkelreid,  Arnold  Strutthan  of, 

bravery   of,    at   Sempach,    98, 

97.     Honors  to,  98. 


INDEX. 


415 


Winters,  Sir  WilLam,  326. 

Wittemberg,  carriage  given  to  Lu- 
ther by  the  town-council  of, 
143  ;  urged  to  protect  him, 
144,  note. 

Wolfenschiessen ,  the  Lord  of,  at- 
tempts an  intrigue,  76.  Killed, 
78. 

Wolsey,  Cardinal,  to  have  an  es- 
tate in  Naples,  235.  Henry 
VIII.,  and  Catharine  of  Ara- 
gon,  before  the  legatine  court, 
consisting  of  Campeggio  and, 
270.  Life  of,  by  Cavendish, 

270,  271.     Closing   scenes   of 
the  life  of,  270.    Controller  and 
victim   of  Henry    VIII.,    270. 
Shakspeare's  representation  of, 

271.  Appointment  of,  for  the 
legatine  court,  273.     Bishop  of 
Lincoln,  280.     Argues  for  the 
King,  281.    Appeal  to,  by  Rid- 
ley,   282.      Private    interview 
between  Henry  VIII.  and,  282. 
Lord  of  Wiltshire's  interview 
with,  282.     Interview  of,  with 
the   Queen,  283.     See   Henry 
VIII. 

Women,  braveiy  of,  at  Rhodes, 
202.  Conduct  of,  at  Zaragoza, 
333. 

Worms,  Appearance  of  Luther 
before  the  Diet  at,  141.  See 
Charles  V  ,  and  Luther. 

X. 

Xenophon,  Apology  of,  31,  32. 

Xerxes,  attempt  by,  to  subdue 
Greece,  10.  Account  of  the 
march  of,  11.  In  Trachinia 
12.  Remarks  of  emissaries  re- 
specting, 13.  Sends  a  horse- 
man to  Thermopylae  to  recon- 
noiter,  14.  Consultation  of  De- 
maratus  by,  15.  Stationary 
during  four  days,  15.  'Troops 
sent  by,  to  attack  the  Greeks 
at  Thermopyla?,  repulsed,  16 
Informed  of  the  path  AnopaB 
17.  Detaches  Hydarnes  to  the 
path,  17.  Offers  a  libation,  20 
Advice  to,  by  Ephialtes,  20 


Advances  and  fights,  20.  Broth- 
ers of,  killed,  21.  His  inter- 
view with  Demaratus,  after  the 
battle  of  Thermopylae,'  respect- 
ing the  subjection  of  Sparta, 

24.  Advice  to,  by  Achaemenes, 

25.  Follows    the    advice    of 
Achaemenes,    26.      Treatment 
by,  of  the  dead  body  of  Leoni- 
das,  26. 

Y. 

Ysni,  freedom  of,  95. 

Z. 

Zaragoza,  Siege  of,  in  1808,  by 
Southey  and  Napier,  327.  Ac- 
count of,  327,  331.  Contract- 
ed for  Caesarea  Augusta,  327, 
note.  Summoned  to  surrender, 
328.  Succored,  329.  Noctur- 
nal conflicts  at,  329.  Dead  un- 

.  buried  in,  330.  Resolution  ta- 
ken by  the  inhabitants  of,  330. 
French  retire  from,  331.  In- 
creased defence  of,  331.  Hou- 
ses of,  331.  In  districts,  331, 
335.  Personal  sacrifices  in, 

331.  Influences  on  the  people 
of,  332.     Punishments  in,  332, 
334.     Gunpowder  made  there, 

332.  Supplies  in,  332.     Con- 
duct of  women  in,  333.     Re- 
appearance of  the  French  be- 
fore, 333.     Walls  of,  fall,  333. 
Resistance  in,  333,  334.    Grad- 
ual progress  against,  S34.  Hou- 
ses   in,  fired,  335.     Incessant 
fighting    in,  335.     General    as- 
sault    on,    337.      Propositions 
from,  for  surrender,  338.     Pes- 
tilence    and    deaths    in,    339. 
Condition    of,    339.     Capitula- 
tion of,  340.  See  Cosso,  French, 
Lasnes,  and  Palafox. 

Zizim,  biographical  and  historical 
facts  respecting,  231,  note. 

Zofingen,  Gutt  and  the  banner  of, 
96. 

Zollern,  Frederick  of,  90. 

Zag,  97. 

Zurich,  97. 


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